IJPHCS Open Access: e-journal

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1 RESEARCH DESIGN Muhamad Hanafiah Juni 1 * & Nor Afiah MZ 1 1 Department of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul-Ehsan, MALAYSIA. *Corresponding Author: Muhamad Hanafiah Juni E hanafiah_juni@upm.edu.my ABSTRACT Research design is a systematic study plan used to turn a research question (research questions) into a experimental or research project, it is specify the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information. There are two basic types of a research methodologies, which are then further sub-categorized into various types of research designs; quantitative research method and qualitative research method. Quantitative research method is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are obtained and used to make conclusion about the subject or subjects of study. Quantitative research will answer questions on what, when and where of the research questions. On the other hand qualitative research method used a systematic subjective approach to describe life experiences, and qualitative research will answer questions on how and why of research questions. Both of the research methodologies have their own strengths and weaknesses, and for certain circumstances each the methods may complement each others. Keywords: Research, design, quantitative research method, qualitative research method. 1.0 Introduction Research design is of the critical components in research. Research design can be defined as a systematic study plan used to turn a research question (research questions) into an experimental or research project; it is specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analysing the needed information. Another definition of research design is a set of logical procedures that when followed enables one to obtain evidence to determine the degree to which a theoretical hypothesis or set of hypotheses is/are correct. In research, the research design is used to form a systematic structure of the research procedure and elucidates all of the major parts and tasks to be carried out in a research project. It takes into account the study samples or groups, measurements, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment, evaluation and testing which are supposed to work together to try to address the research questions hence reaching the hypothesis testing and conclusion. The emphasis of research designs is on the study subject (subjects) or respondent (respondents) selected; their allocation Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 153

2 to sub-groups; the time sequence of data collection; and any structured interventions, and not on theoretical concept of research or data collection methods. Research Design is built around the research cycle as shown in Figure 1; starting from evidence synthesis, development of ideas, instrument development, field studies, testing and monitoring. Figure 1: An outline of research cycle and development Adopted from: Gorard, S., (2013). Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences. 2.0 Difference between research design and method Research design is different from research method. Research design is about a logical structure of the research itself, while research method is about how data are collected. There is nothing special about a particular research design that will require specific types of data collection method. Although cross-sectional study design often equated with questionnaires and case-studies are associated with participant observation however data for any research design can be collected with any data collection methods, depending on the circumstances and type of data require by the study (Figure 2). The problem arises from failing to differentiate between research design and research method is leads to poor evaluation of the research design itself. It means that, the research design will be evaluated based on the strengths and weaknesses of the methods of data collection rather Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 154

3 that the ability of the research design to draw conclusions or make a selection between rival hypotheses. Design Types Experiment Case Study Longitudinal Design Cross-Sectional Design Questtionnaires Questtionnaires Questtionnaires Questtionnaires Methods of Data Collection Interview (Structured or loosely unstructured) Interview (Structured or loosely unstructured) Interview (Structured or loosely unstructured) Interview (Structured or loosely unstructured) Observation Observation Observation Observation Analysis if document Analysis if document Analysis if document Analysis if document Unobtrusive methods Unobtrusive methods Unobtrusive methods Unobtrusive methods Figure 2: Examples of relationship between research design with various type of data collection methods 3.0 Types of Research Designs There are two basic types of research methodologies in the social sciences, which are then further sub-categorized into other types; 1. Quantitative Research Method 2. Qualitative Research Method 3.1 Comparison between Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research The differences between two research approaches are shown in Table 1 below. Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 155

4 Table1: Comparison between Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research Definitions Goals Qualitative A systematic subjective approach used to describe life experiences and give them meaning. To gain insight; explore the depth, richness, and complexity inherent in the phenomenon. Quantitative A formal, objective, systematic process for obtaining information for the research or project. A method used to describe, test relationships, and examine cause and effect relationships. To test relationships, describe, examine cause and effect relations Characteristics Soft science Focus: complex & broad Holistic Subjective Dialectic, inductive reasoning Basis of knowing: meaning & discovery Develops theory Shared interpretation Communication & observation Basic element of analysis: words Individual interpretation Uniqueness Hard science Focus: concise & narrow Reductionist Objective Logistic, deductive reasoning Basis of knowing: cause & effect, relationships Tests theory Control Instruments Basic element of analysis: numbers Statistical analysis Generalization 3.2 Quantitative Research Method Quantitative research is a formal, objective and systematic process of obtaining information or data of the research or project. It is used to describe, test relationships, and examine cause and effect relationships. It is answering the questions like what, when and where of the research questions. The conclusions drawn from quantitative research are formed in quantitative analysis techniques based on research hypothesis. This research method is used to: Describe variables Examine relationships among variables Determine cause-and-effect interactions between variables Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 156

5 It is a systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena by employing statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The procedure of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative research used in social sciences such as psychology, health sciences, economics, sociology, and political science. There are four basic types of quantitative research design, they are; Descriptive studies Observational or Analytical studies Intervention(Experimental) studies Systematic review and meta analysis Descriptive Studies Descriptive study or statistical study takes into account the features or characteristics of a population sample under study. It is conducted on a systematic pattern by following logic and exactness, but it does not explain the causative factors of a condition. Typically, descriptive research studies include all those subject matters which can be sampled, categorized and then studied but it fails to consider the origins and impacts of a condition. Types of descriptive study include; Case study Observation Survey Case reports Case series Observational or analytical studies Cross-sectional study; The ross sectional design is based on observations made at one point in time such as survey research. It involves data collection on more than one case or a small group, and involves systematic data collection. With cross sectional designs it is difficult to make inferences about the processes that occur over time, hence also cause and effect relationship. Usually crosssectional studies are done for exploratory and descriptive research, but sometimes also for explanatory studies. The generalizability of cross-sectional studies are good, because they are representative of given populations and data normally collected systematically, and some probability sampling technique also employed. Case control study; A case control study is a type of study to detect possible causes or risk factors. It begins with the presence or absence of an measured outcome followed by retrospectively detecting the Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 157

6 risk factors. The cases should be individuals who had developed the disease and the controls are individuals without the disease and a representative from the same population base of the cases Longitudinal study Longitudinal study is a research strategy in which one or more group or groups of subjects in various stages of development are examined simultaneously with the intent of inferring trends over time. It investigates change over time. The assumption is that the phenomenon under study progresses with time, and involves multiple observations. There are three basic types of longitudinal designs; Trend studies Cohort studies Panel studies Longitudinal studies have an obvious advantage over cross-sectional ones in providing information describing processes over time. But often this advantage comes at a heavy cost in both time and money, especially in large scale surveys. Trend studies; It is a research strategy to examine changes in the general population in relation to a particular phenomenon by means of data collected at predetermined interval of time from different samples selected from the general population. Trend studies examine changes within the general population over time. Cohort studies; Cohort studies examine more specific subpopulations (cohorts) as they change over time. It is an analytical follow-up or prospective study in which people who are exposed and not exposed to the postulated causal factor or factors (or who have different degrees of exposure) are compared with respect to the subsequent development of the diseases (the people who are followed up are referred as the cohort). Cohort study resembles to an experiment study, except that exposure or nonexposure is not controlled by the researcher. Panel studies; Panel studies are similar to trend and cohort studies except that the same set of people is studied each time. Panel studies give a more complete picture of how individuals change over time. Panel studies are the best type of longitudinal design to study cause and effect (explanatory studies) Experimental study There are several types of experimental study design, below are some the study design under this group; Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 158

7 Experimental study; Randomize control trial is a gold standard of research design in experimental study design. It can show a causal relationship between inputs and outcomes. Important characteristics of experimental study design include; Randomization - random assignment to groups of intervention or non intervention group. Blind single or double blind. Researcher or respondents don t know about intervention, or both researcher and respondents don t about the intervention Intervention occurs prior to observation The strengths of the experimental study are; High internal validity Causal relationship between variables Limitations of the experimental study are; Limited external validity Result cannot generalized Ethical consideration sometime an issue in experimental study design. Quasi experimental study; Quasi experimental study design useful when random assignment not possible to be carried out. It is commonly used in public health setting. Evidence generated from this study design can be as strong as in randomize control trial experimental study design. In quasi experimental study design, control group (comparison group) is matched with intervention group of important key factors such as socio demographic characteristics. The control group will receive other type of services or nor routine services. The strengths of the quasi experimental study design are; Enables experimentation when random assignment is not possible Avoid ethical issue Limitation of quasi experimental stud design; Some uncontrolled factors may influence outcome. Pre test-post test; It is the simplest type of experimental study. Control group were not included in the study design. Types of pre test and post test study design are; One shot case study One group pre test and post test Static group comparison study Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 159

8 Characteristics of pre-test and post-test study design are; Not fully controlling external factors Low validity Exploratory Convenient and financially feasible Ex Post Facto Study; Experimental and quasi-experimental study design will employ primary data, and these data are expensive to collect. If good, organized and detail data are available from routine monitoring or surveillance programme, the ex post facto design (after the fact design) can be employed. Other types of experimental study; Factorial Design Solomon Four-Group Design Repeated Measures Design Counter Balanced Measures Design Bayesian Probability Study design 3.3Qualitative Research Method Qualitative research method is a method to inquire about human behaviour. With the help of qualitative analysis technique, various reasons are studied to achieve an in depth consideration as why certain behaviour appears in a human being. More specifically, we can say that qualitative research methodology tells how and why certain decisions come forward in particular circumstances. Several types of qualitative research are as follows; 3.3.1Ethnography Ethnography is derived from the Greek language (Ethno: people & grapho: to write) and includes those kinds of qualitative research whose aim is to scrutinize, understand, describe and evaluate human lifestyle, societal formations and communal living. The discipline typically includes the following areas; people, ethnic groups, ethnic formation, ethno genesis, composition, resettlement, social welfare characteristic and culture Critical Social Research Critical social research assumes that social existence is a universal phenomenon and elements of social, cultural and political dimensions exert a directional influence on bringing the societal changes in terms of its pattern, formation and evolution. Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 160

9 3.3.3Grounded Theory Grounded theory is a research method cancels out the standard procedures of research as its first step includes data collection and then extraction of the main pointers for segmentation and analysis of a hypothesis and the formation and testing of a theory. The aim of this research is for theory development Phenomenology (Philosophical Research) The philosophical discipline founded by Edmund Husserl with the objective to discern the conscious experiences in terms of its actual existence and form without clouding it in terms of interpretations of causes and effects Historical Research Historical research aims to describe and examine the events of the past, to understand the present and anticipate potential future effects. It seeks to supply answers for current issues by doing an analytical deduction of the past events or by looking into the patterns of progression of history Case Study The purpose of the case study is to describe in-depth the experience of one person, family, group, community, or institution by direct observation and interaction with the subject. 4.0 Conclusion Research design is a critical part of research development. It will specify the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information. Quantitative method and qualitative method are two basic approaches in health sciences research. Quantitative methods commonly address the research question of what, when and where, while qualitative methods answering the research question of how and why. In this article, basic principle of both quantitative and qualitative methods was addressed as a guide to beginner in research in research development. References Abramson, J.H. & Abramson, Z.H. (2005). Survey Methods in Community Medicine. London: Churchill Livingstone. Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches, 4 th Edition. Washington DC: Sage. Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 161

10 Dawson-Saunders, B. & Trapp, R.G. (2004). Basic & Clinical Biostatistics, Connecticut, 4 th. Edition. Prentice-Hall International Inc Gorard, S. (2013). Research design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Muhamad Hanafiah Juni, Nor Afiah MZ 162