Sustainable Energy Systems and Applications

Transcription

1 Sustainable Energy Systems and Applications

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3 İbrahim Dinçer l Calin Zamfirescu Sustainable Energy Systems and Applications

4 İbrahim Dinçer Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT) Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4 Canada Calin Zamfirescu Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT) Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4 Canada ISBN e-isbn DOI / Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (

5 To our parents, Fatma and Hasan Dinçer, and Verginia and Daniil Zamfirescu and To our children, Meliha, Miray, Iḃrahim Eren, Zeynep and Iḃrahim Emir Dinçer, and Ioana Zamfirescu, for their inspiration. Iḃrahim Dinçer Calin Zamfirescu

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7 Preface We have been in a fossil fuel era and ended up with such a desperate picture! The key question here is: how to cure this problem? The common consensus to tackle this problem is that we need sustainable energy solutions which cover the following six key pillars, namely, (1) better efficiency, (2) better cost-effectiveness, (3) better resources use, (4) better design and analysis, (5) better energy security, and (6) better environment. These are essentially the main pillars and what makes this book really unique as sustainable energy systems and applications. This book is research oriented, and therefore includes extensive practical features not found in solely academic textbooks. This book is essentially intended for use by senior undergraduate and graduate students in various disciplines ranging from mechanical to chemical engineering, and as a basic sustainable energy source on, even a handbook, for practicing energy engineers. Analyses of sustainable energy systems and their applications are undertaken throughout this comprehensive book, providing new understandings, methodologies, models, and applications, along with several illustrative examples and case studies. The coverage is extensive, and the amount of information and data presented is quite sufficient for several energyrelated courses, if studied in detail. We strongly believe that this book will be of great interest to researchers, scientists, students, engineers, and energy experts, and that it provides a valuable and readable reference text for those who wish to learn more about sustainable energy systems and applications. Chapter 1 addresses general aspects of thermodynamics to furnish the readers with background information on thermodynamic aspects, covering essentially two main laws (first and second law of thermodynamics) through energy and exergy analyses and efficiency assessment, along with some examples related to the analyses of sustainable energy systems and their applications. Chapter 2 discusses energy and environmental issues and energy sources and options and their impact of environment. Chapter 3 is a continuation of Chapter 2 by focusing primarily on global warming and climate change issues and their consequences. Chapter 4 focuses on energy conservation with some specifics on issues, measures, policies, strategies, and their assessments, and offers some illustrative examples. Chapter 5 vii

8 viii Preface discusses energy policies and assessment of various options for sustainable development. Chapter 6 delves into fossil-fuel alternatives and provides some examples and case studies. Chapter 7 is specifically about using ammonia as a potential substance for various options as the fuel, refrigerant, and working fluid in numerous applications and discusses ammonia as a key source of hydrogen especially for transportation vehicles. Chapter 8 provides comprehensive coverage on the nuclear energy option, addressing a broad range of topics from historical perspectives to nuclear-based hydrogen production. Chapter 9 renewable addresses comprehensive by energy systems and applications, including integrated and hybrid systems for a more sustainable future. Chapter 10 deals with district energy systems, including various subtopics from cogeneration to system analysis and offers case studies. Chapter 11 discusses energy storage options as part of sustainable energy systems and applications, and presents various examples and case studies. Chapter 12 describes integrated multigeneration systems for the production of various commodities, including power, heat, hot water, cooling, hydrogen, as well as desalination. Chapter 13 is the heart of this book as it focuses on hydrogen and fuel cell systems, covering hydrogen production, storage, transportation, distribution, and use, and fuel cell systems and their applications and analyses. Chapter 14 discusses carbon dioxide technologies and their implementation for various applications. Chapter 15 is another important chapter, focusing on life-cycle assessment for various systems and applications for better efficiency and environment. Chapter 16 provides some details on industrial ecology and its possible applications in some areas of sustainable development. Chapter 17 gives some perspectives on sectoral energy and exergy utilization to provide a comprehensive picture of economies and their activities. Chapter 18 discusses economic analysis of systems, especially sustainable energy systems. Incorporated throughout this book are many wide-ranging, illustrative examples and case studies that provide useful information for sustainable practical applications. Conversion factors and thermophysical properties of various materials are listed in the appendices in the International System of Units (SI). Complete references and a bibliography are included in each chapter to direct the curious and interested reader to further information. Oshawa, Canada İbrahim Dinçer Calin Zamfirescu

9 Contents 1 Thermodynamic Fundamentals Introduction Primary Notions in Thermodynamics Kinetic-Molecular Theory and Temperature Thermodynamic Equilibrium: The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Energy Conservation: The First Law of Thermodynamics Equations of State The Carnot Cycle and Carnot Efficiency The Second Law of Thermodynamics Exergy Example: Solar Exergy and the Earth Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Energy and Environment Perspectives Introduction What Is Sustainable Energy Engineering? Fundamental Energy Sources on the Earth Solar Energy Geothermal Energy Tidal Energy Biomass Energy Fossil Fuels Coal Petroleum Natural Gas ix

10 x Contents 2.6 Nuclear Energy Proven Fuel Reserves Historical Trends and World Energy Prospects Environmental Impact of Energy Generation and Utilization Global Warming (Greenhouse Gas) Effect Acid Precipitation Impact of Energy Efficiency Other Environmental Impact Aspects Case Study Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Global Warming and Climate Change Introduction Analysis and Modeling of the Earth s Climate Radiation Balance of the Earth Planet Greenhouse Gases Radiative Forcing Concept Global Warming Potential Anthropogenic Effect on Climate Controlling the Anthropogenic Effects on Climate Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Energy Conservation Introduction Energy Conservation and Sustainable Development Energy Conservation Measures Energy Conservation Policies: Illustrative Examples Energy Management and Audit Selection of More Efficient Energy Options Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Sustainable Development and Energy Policies Introduction Sustainable Energy Strategies and Policies Modeling Instruments for Sustainable Energy Development and Policies

11 Contents xi 5.4 Case Studies Sustainability Assessment of Solar Energy Sustainability Assessment of Fossil Fuel Combustion Assessment of Green Energy Strategies and Policies Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Fossil Fuels and Alternative Fuels Introduction Fossil Fuels Coal Petroleum Natural Gas Alternative Fuels Biofuels Other Synthetic Fuels and Fuel Blends Case Study: Urea for Cofueling Vehicles Analysis Results Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Ammonia as a Potential Substance Introduction Ammonia Synthesis Ammonia Storage Ammonia Use in Power Generation Systems Hydrogen from Ammonia Route Thermo-Catalytic NH 3 Decomposition and Hydrogen Separation Simultaneous Ammonia Use as Fuel and Working Fluid Simultaneous Use of Ammonia as Fuel and Refrigerant Performance Analysis of Ammonia-Fueled Systems Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Nuclear Energy Introduction Historical Perspective

12 xii Contents 8.3 Basic Elements of Nuclear Power Atomic Structure Nuclear Reactions: Fission and Fusion Nuclear Radiations and Decay Reactions Available Energy from Uranium Fuel Available Energy from Nuclear Fusion Controlled Generation of Nuclear Heat Nuclear Power Reactors Nuclear Fuels and Reserves Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Enrichment Process Nuclear Safety and Waste Disposal Radiation Issues Applications of Nuclear Energy Nuclear Power Production Nuclear Hydrogen Production Case Studies Upgrading Nuclear Heat from Current Reactors to Generate Hydrogen Nuclear Heat for Desalination and Water Splitting Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Renewable Energies Introduction Solar Energy Thermodynamic Limits of Solar Energy Conversion Solar Thermal Energy Solar Electricity Solar to Biochemical Energy Conversion Solar Multigeneration Systems Wind Energy Thermodynamic Limits of Wind Energy Conversion Types of Wind Turbines Wind Power Plants Hydrogen Production from Wind Electricity Geothermal Energy Thermodynamic Limits of Geothermal Energy Conversion Geothermal Power Plants Thermal Applications Geothermal-Based Hydrogen Production District Energy

13 Contents xiii 9.5 Hydro Energy Biomass Energy Thermodynamic Limits of Biomass Energy Conversion Conversion of Biomass in Biofuels Electricity Generation Ocean Thermal Energy Tidal and Wave Energy Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems District Energy Systems Introduction Distributed Energy Systems Description Historical Development and Perspectives of District Energy Systems Cogeneration as a Key Part of District Energy Systems Technological Aspects Environmental Impact Role in Sustainable Development Thermodynamic Analysis Economic Analysis Case Studies Case Study I Case Study II Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Energy Storage Introduction Energy Demand Storable Energies Energy Storage Methods Electrical Charge Storage in Capacitors Electrochemical Energy Storage in Batteries Kinetic Energy Storage in Flywheels Storing Gravitational Potential Energy Through Pumped Hydrostorage Thermomechanical Energy Storage in Compressed Air

14 xiv Contents Chemical Energy Storage in Synthetic Fuels Thermochemical Energy Storage with Chemical Heat Pump Systems Thermal Energy Storage Comparison of Energy Storage Methods Methods of Analysis of Energy Storage Systems Thermal Energy Thermal Energy Sources TES for Cooling and Heating Benefits of a TES System Methods of Sensible and Latent TES Case Studies: New Energy Storage Systems and Applications Energy and Exergy Efficiencies of a Sensible Heat Thermal Storage System Efficiency of a Cold Storage System Fundamental Optimal Configuration for Underground Thermal Storage Constructal Tree-Shaped Cold Storage Device Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Integrated Multigeneration Energy Systems Introduction System Integration Multigeneration Hybridization Economic Aspects of Multigeneration Systems Case Studies Power, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Multigeneration Using Nuclear Energy Integration of SOFC and Rankine Cycles for Tri-Generation Tri-Generation System with Combined Brayton and Absorption Cycles Integrated Rankine and Absorption Cycles for Power and Refrigeration Tri-Generation with Integrated Absorption Refrigeration with Ammonia Turbine Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems

15 Contents xv 13 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Systems Introduction Hydrogen Hydrogen Economy Hydrogen Production Methods Electricity-Driven Hydrogen Production Methods Thermally-Driven Hydrogen Production Methods Electrothermally-Driven Hybrid Hydrogen Production Photonic Energy-Driven Hydrogen Production Methods Biochemical Methods for Hydrogen Production Hybrid Methods for Hydrogen Production Hydrogen Storage Hydrogen Transportation and Distribution Hydrogen Utilization Fuel Cells Fuel Cell Types and Classification Fuel Cell Systems and Applications Integrated Fuel Cell Systems Fuel Cells: Analysis and Modeling Classification of Fuel Cell Models Fundamental Equations and Definitions Case Study: Design Optimization of a Fuel Cell System Case Study: Environmental Impact, Efficiency, and Sustainability Assessment Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Carbon Dioxide Technologies Introduction Thermophysical Properties of Carbon Dioxide Technologies Using CO 2 as Heat Transfer Medium, Refrigerant, or Working Fluid Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Technologies in Process Industries Technologies for Carbon Dioxide Capture from Flue Gas Transportation and Sequestration Technologies for Carbon Dioxide Case Study

16 xvi Contents 14.8 Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Life-Cycle Assessment Introduction General Description of LCA Methodology Exergetic Life-Cycle Analysis Case Studies Comparative LCA of Hydrogen Fuel Cell vs. Gasoline Vehicles Comparative Life-Cycle Assessment of Conventional and Alternative Vehicles Comparative LCA of Hydrogen Production from Renewable Sources LCA of Nuclear-Based Hydrogen Production by Thermochemical Water Splitting Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Industrial Ecology Introduction Relevant Natural and Industrial Cycles Methods of Analysis in Industrial Ecology Case Study Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Sectorial Energy and Exergy Utilization Introduction Thermodynamic Modeling at the Sectorial Level Residential, Commercial, and Public Sectors Industrial Sector Agricultural Sector Transportation Sector Electric Utility Sector Case Study: Sectorial Exergy Utilization in Canada Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems

17 Contents xvii 18 Economic Analysis Introduction Elements of Financing and Engineering Economics Rate of Discounting the Future Inflation Rate Real Rate Price Escalation Levelizing Taxation Loans Technical and Economic Criteria for Sustainable Energy Systems Concluding Remarks References Study Questions/Problems Appendix A Appendix B Index