CHAPTER 3: The Role of Tense-Aspect in Discourse Management. and organization of mental spaces (and meaning) built in the ongoing process of

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1 CHAPTER 3: The Role of Tense-Aspect in Discourse Management 3.0 Introduction Tense-aspect plays an important discourse management role in the construction and organization of mental spaces (and meaning) built in the ongoing process of discourse interpretation. The purpose of this chapter is to lay out in a systematic way the components of the model of tense-aspect proposed here and to give an overview of how tense-aspect functions, in conjunction with a set of Discourse Organization Principles, to constrain the mental space configurations built during the interpretation of ongoing discourse. This chapter lays the theoretical foundation for the detailed analysis of language specific tense markers, of tense in embedded clauses, and of tense in discoursenarrative, treated in subsequent chapters. In this chapter, I will propose a model which is an extension of the approach and ideas of Fauconnier (1985, 1986a, 1986b, 1990, 1991, to appear) and Dinsmore (1991). The model, which is the basis for the account of tense presented in this dissertation, consists of: the mental space format (space partitioning, cognitive links between elements in different spaces, etc...) and the general mental space principles of access, optimization, spreading, and matching, as proposed in Fauconnier (1985) and updated in more recent work. 67

2 68 a set of conceptual, discourse primitives: {BASE,, EVENT, and V- POINT}, which are distributed over the hierarchical configuration of spaces built as the discourse interpretation process unfolds. a set of Discourse Organization Principles which operate on these conceptual primitives, determining the types of space configurations which are possible. a distinction between the FACT and PREDICTION status assigned to spaces. A FACT/PREDICTION Principle which is invoked whenever two s are engaged will be proposed in chapter 6. a characterization of the tense-aspect categories {PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE, PERFECT, PROGRESSIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE}. These categories are cross-linguistic, putatively universal discourse construction notions which operate at the cognitive construction level. This chapter lays out the model of tense-aspect, developed during the research process and gives an overview of how the model functions. The model is presented in its final form, which has the maximum explanatory value. Chapters 4 through 7 will show in detail how this model functions to account for tense data in simple sentences, in complex clauses, in pragmatic context, and in discourse-narrative. The tense-aspect categories {PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE, PERFECT, PROGRESSIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE} will be characterized in terms of the constraints they impose on the actual space configurations which are built during the

3 69 discourse interpretation process. Each category is universal type of discourse link between spaces. A link or a combination of links may map onto a language specific tense marker. These tense-aspect categories or links function to constrain the organization and distribution of {BASE,, EVENT, } over a set of spaces, to assign local temporal relationships between spaces, and to partition information in time, in status as FACT or PREDICTION, and in status as or non-.26 The view of language taken here is one where all sentences have a context. The context for tense-aspect may be in written narrative, in spoken discourse, or a single sentence stripped to its minimal context, numbered and placed on the page of a linguistics paper. In discourse-narrative, as well as in the simple sentence, the interpretation of language cues the space construction process. The cognitive construction process and the constraints which tense-aspect links (and the grammatical categories which encode those links) impose on that process are the same regardless of whether the context is a discourse one or the minimal context of a simple sentence. The only distinction between discourse and the simple sentence is perhaps the complexity and elaborateness of the actual space configuration constructed in the interpretation process. The structure of this chapter is as follows: Section 3.1 provides characterizations of four theoretical discourse notions which will be central to the analysis of tense presented in this dissertation: {BASE,, EVENT, }. Section 3.2 proposes a set of Discourse Organization Principles which operate on the distribution and configuration of {BASE,, EVENT, } over a set of spaces. Section 3.3 shows in a highly schematic way how these Discourse Organization Principles may 26 The value of the FACT/PREDICTION distinction will become apparent in the discussion of the Present and Future tenses in chapter 4, and in the discussion of the behavior of tense in embedded clauses of speech verbs in chapter 6.

4 70 operate over a set of spaces, constraining the kinds of space configurations which are possible. In section 3.4, characterizations of the universal tense-aspect categories {PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE, PROGRESSIVE, PERFECT, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE} are given. These categories are characterized as universal discourse notions. Each category gives instructions about the construction of a local link between spaces and the organization and distribution of {BASE,, EVENT, }. These links may also set up local time connections, and assign a space a status as FACT or PREDICTION. Section 3.4 also provides a brief discussion of the general discourse functions of tense-aspect, and shows how these categories may link together to form a more complex access path to a target space. Section 3.5 shows how the instructions provided by tense-aspect categories function, in combination with the Principles of Discourse Organization, to constrain the underlying cognitive constructions built in the process of language interpretation. In particular, we will look at operations which involve {,, BASE, EVENT} in real discourse settings. Section 3.6 is concerned with the role which tense-aspect markers play in the access and reaccess of spaces. Section 3.7 gives a summary of the discourse-management functions of tenseaspect. Section 3.8 concludes the chapter.

5 BASE,, EVENT, and We begin by characterizing four theoretical discourse primitives which are central to the discussion of tense throughout this dissertation: {BASE,, EVENT, V- POINT} : The concept of space employed here was developed by Dinsmore (1991). Dinsmore generalizes Reichenbach's notion of reference time in terms of the more general semantic process of contextualization, the process of identifying the appropriate space for meaning construction. Reference time is defined as the temporal perspective taken on the event, the time mentioned in the context of the temporal space. The space is the space where meaning is currently being constructed. It is the current, most active space; the space which an utterance is "about". The space may be identified by a variety of cues, both grammatical and pragmatic. Dinsmore proposes a number of factors which may identify the space: - Grammatical cues such as tense, mood, and certain time adverbials, such as 'once upon a time', that restrict the set of space candidates. For the purposes of this dissertation, any adverbial which gives a precise time specification, such as 'today', 'yesterday', '3 days ago', etc... will serve as cues. - The 'activation' of various spaces. For any given space, the activation level or degree of

6 72 activation may vary. The degree of activation of a particular space may be determined by a number of factors: by how recently the space has been used in the preceding discourse; by the amount of information processed in that space; by the degree of activation of closely related spaces; by the centrality of the space to the discourse, story, or conversational interchange; and by the unexpectedness of the information conveyed. - The communicative function of the sentence in relation to various spaces. "The projection of a discourse sentence into a space is generally communicatively functional if the pragmatic preconditions for its successful interpretation are satisfied there, if it does not conflict with knowledge that is already given there and if it says something relevant about that space" (Dinsmore 1991:123). It may be added here that various types of spaces differ with regards to their stability as. For example, spaces with a more complex access path will be less stable than spaces with a simpler access path. spaces which are less central to a story will be less stable than spaces which are more central to a story. EVENT: An EVENT space is the temporal space in which the event encoded in the verb takes place. The EVENT space is the space in which the full structure of the verb is constructed. BASE: The BASE space is the initial or origin space in any hierarchical organization of spaces. The BASE space represents a temporal frame which contains the initial conceptualizing, from which events or states are conceived, evaluated, measured, and/or construed. This initial serves as the center of reference from

7 73 which deictic relations typically or canonically are calculated. A BASE space is always a PRESENT one by default; a PAST or FUTURE space cannot be BASE, since a PAST or FUTURE space must access some higher space in a hierarchy of spaces for the interpretation of tense. :27 In its strongest version, is the center of conceptualization and consciousness of the SELF to whom an utterance is attributed. In the strongest version, is composed of the intersection of a bundle of deictic dimensions, although they may or may not be evident linguistically. These dimensions may include:28 - a personal dimension (I vs. you, encoder vs. other persons/objects); - a temporal dimension; - a spatial dimension; - a realis/irrealis dimension; - a dimension of emotional distance or empathy; - a social dimension; - a psychological or cognitive dimension. This strong version of corresponds to traditional notions of viewpoint or narrative point of view, and to Genette's notion of focalizer (Genette 1980). 27 I add to the characterization of given in Sweetser and Fauconnier (to appear), where is defined as the space from which other spaces can be accessed and structured or created. 28 The idea that viewpoint or point of view is multi-dimensional is not new. Rauh 1983, Talmy 1983, Kamp and Rohrer 1983, and others have also proposed various dimensions for viewpoint or point of view.

8 74 In its weakest, most abstract version, is composed of a single dimension, such as a spatial or temporal dimension, or a limited subset of dimensions. This weakest version of corresponds to notions of vantage point (Langacker), reference point (Reichenbach 1947), or to what Talmy (1983) refers to as perspective point, the point within a scene at which one conceptually places ones "mental eyes" to look out over the rest of the scene (Talmy 1983).29 A version of intermediate between the two extremes is possible, where a possesses an incomplete, but not minimal set of deictic dimensions. In its strongest version, a corresponds to the of a SELF, with a full set of deictic dimensions. In its weakest version, it corresponds to a more abstract, with a single or very limited set of deictic dimensions. Intermediate between the strongest and weakest versions, a will be more or less abstract depending on the number of deictic dimensions which are present. The canonical, in any form, is that of the speaker. Alternate s can be assumed for the purpose of calculating a particular relationship.30 The dynamic process by which the, in the stronger version, changes position within a space hierarchy corresponds to Genette's notion of 'focalization' (Genette 1980). The dynamic process by which changes position in the weaker version, corresponds to what Vandeloise (1984) and Langacker refer to as 'mental transfer'. In either the strong, weak, or some intermediate version, operates in the same manner, subject to the same set of general Discourse Principles and constraints. 29 Talmy considers perspective point to be part of a secondary imaging system. 30 A shift in strong involves a shift in the whole bundle of deictic dimensions, a shift in weaker involves a single dimension or a subset of dimensions.

9 These theoretical primitives, {BASE,, EVENT, and }, are cognitive construction notions; they operate at the level of cognitive construction which is independent both of language and of the real world. These theoretical primitives also correspond to informal intuitions or notions which we have about discourse. For example, we know that in the production and interpretation of discourse, we need to represent possible situations and actions within some domain, hence the need for a notion such as EVENT. We also know that given the constraints imposed by our attention and memory system, we cannot look at, describe, or recreate everything at once, but must focus our attention on a particular part of the scene, thus, the notion. It is part of our basic cognitive capacity that we are able to view things mentally from different angles, thus the notion. Although we may view things from different positions, we need a more permanent anchor, thus the notion BASE. However, although these primitives may correspond to informal notions which we have about discourse, the motivation for these theoretical primitives is not based on the relationship to informal notions, but rather on the explanatory value which these primitives have in the account of tense-aspect proposed here. Having provided a characterization of {BASE,, EVENT, } we turn now to a discussion of the Discourse Organization Principles which govern the distribution of these primitives over a set of spaces and the dynamic change which these primitives may undergo.

10 Discourse Organization Principles and the Distribution of BASE,, EVENT, and At any given point in the discourse interpretation process, there is a space which serves as BASE, a space which is in, a space which is, and a space which is EVENT. The BASE,,, and EVENT may share the same space or they may be distributed over a set of hierarchically related spaces in various ways. The may be BASE or it may be separate. The EVENT space may be or it may be separate. The may be BASE or or it may be separate. As discourse unfolds, the organization and dynamic distribution and redistribution of {BASE,, EVENT, } over a configuration of hierarchically related spaces is constrained by: grammatical information, such as tense-aspect; lexical information; pragmatic and contextual information; and by a set of Discourse Organization Principles. However, it is important to note that although the operations by which {BASE,, EVENT, } dynamically change may be cued by tenseaspect markers and other linguistic information, these conceptual structures are independent of language and therefore their presence may be linguistically underdetermined. Although the {BASE,, EVENT, } are always conceptually present in discourse, they are not always grammatically or lexically marked. In this section, a set of Discourse Organization Principles will be proposed. These principles restrict the organization, distribution, and dynamic redistribution of {BASE,, EVENT, } over a set of spaces during the discourse

11 77 interpretation process.31 The following Discourse Principles are proposed: (3.1) Principles of Discourse Organization: I. General Principles: 1) At any given moment in the discourse interpretation process, there may be only one space. The output of a single clause may have only one space. 2) There may be only one BASE in each hierarchical configuration of spaces, although more than one configuration and thus more than one BASE may be accessed for a single utterance. 3) The BASE is the initial. II. Operational Principles: 4) If is BASE, is also BASE. 5) A new space is built from BASE or. 6) BASE may shift to any, or to any previous BASE. 7) can shift to an EVENT space, to a BASE space, to a previous space, or to a new space. 8) can shift to or to BASE. 9) EVENT can be or it can shift to or to a new space which is a daughter of. 31 The principles presented here were developed based on work on tense-aspect in discourse-narrative, as a part of the research process which led up to this dissertation.

12 78 Given that all other constraints are met, the status quo may also be maintained. BASE can remain BASE, can remain, EVENT can remain EVENT, and can remain. These discourse organization principles are applied to time spaces, geographical spaces, counterfactuals, and other types of spaces. These principles govern the distribution and dynamic change which the conceptual primitives {BASE,, V- POINT, EVENT} can undergo, determining the kinds of space configurations which are possible. The kinds of dynamic changes which {BASE,,, EVENT} may undergo, as laid out in these principles, can be seen throughout the dissertation. The following section, section 3.3, will illustrate in a schematic way how particular space configurations are allowed by these constraints and how the distribution of {BASE,, EVENT, } may change dynamically. Readers adverse to abstract, schematic representations may skim through section 3.3. The kinds of dynamic changes which {BASE,, EVENT, } may undergo will be illustrated with actual discourse data in section 3.5, after we have given a characterization of the tense-aspect discourse construction notions {PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE, PERFECT, PROGRESSIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE} in section 3.4.

13 3.3 Distribution and Redistribution of BASE,,, and EVENT 79 In the simplest configuration, the BASE,, EVENT, and belong to the same space, as in Figure 3.1. FIGURE 3.1 BASE as,, and EVENT space B: BASE EVENT Principle 5 allows a new space to be built from BASE or. Hence, from a space configuration as in Figure 3.1, a new space, space M, may be set up as a daughter of space B. EVENT alone may shift to this new daughter space M, as allowed by Principle 9, since space M is daughter of. The output of this dynamic change is shown in Figure 3.2.

14 80 FIGURE 3.2 EVENT as daughter of space B: BASE EVENT From a space configuration as in Figure 3.2, Principle 7 allows to shift to an EVENT space. Hence, may shift from space B in Figure 3.2 to the new EVENT space M. The output of this dynamic change is shown in Figure 3.3. FIGURE 3.3 shifts to EVENT space B: BASE EVENT From the space configuration in Figure 3.3, may shift to the

15 space, as allowed by Principle 8. The output of this dynamic operation is shown in Figure FIGURE 3.4 shifts to space B: BASE EVENT Principle 5 allows a new space to be built from BASE or. Hence, from the space configuration in Figure 3.4, a daughter space, space M1, may be created from space M. Space M1 may be EVENT, since EVENT may shift to a space which is daughter of, as allowed by Principle 9. may also shift to space M1, since may shift to any new space, as allowed by Principle 7. These possibilities are shown in Figures 3.5 and 3.6 respectively.

16 82 FIGURE 3.5 EVENT shifts to daughter of space B: BASE space M1: EVENT FIGURE 3.6 shifts to new space space B: BASE space M1: (EVENT)

17 83 Since EVENT can be or daughter of (Principle 9), in Figure 3.6 implies EVENT. Principle 9 specifies that where an EVENT space is created, the parent space must be, as in Figure 3.6. Since an EVENT space's parent must be (Principle 9), a configuration where EVENT's parent is but not is not possible. From Figure 3.5, Principle 9 allows EVENT to shift back to space M. From Figure 3.6, Principle 7 allows and therefore EVENT to shift back to the previous space, space M. The output of both operations is diagrammed in Figure 3.7. FIGURE 3.7 EVENT shifts to or shifts to previous space B: BASE EVENT space M1:

18 From the space configuration in Figure 3.7, Principle 8 allows to shift back to BASE. The output of this operation is shown in Figure FIGURE 3.8 shifts to BASE space B: BASE EVENT From the space configuration represented in Figure 3.8, may shift back to BASE, as allowed by Principle 7. If shifts to BASE, must also shift to BASE, as constrained by Principle 4. The resulting configuration is one where BASE,, EVENT, and belong to the same space. The output of these operations is the simple space configuration which we started with, as represented in Figure 3.1. According to Principle 6, any is eligible to become BASE. Thus, a space configuration such as:

19 85 FIGURE 3.9 is space B: BASE (EVENT) may be updated as in Figure FIGURE 3.10 BASE shifts to space B: BASE (EVENT) The space which was in Figure 3.9 becomes BASE in Figure In

20 86 this case, the space which was BASE in Figure 3.9 loses its status as a BASE, as shown in Figure However, as a previous BASE, space B is eligible to become BASE again (Principle 6).32 This section has given a very schematic illustration of how the general Discourse Organization Principles{BASE,, EVENT, } may be distributed over a set of spaces and how that distribution may dynamically change. In addition to the constraints imposed by the Discourse Organization Principles proposed above, tenseaspect also provides important cues to and constraints on the location and configuration of {BASE,,, EVENT}. In the following section, section 3.4, I will propose characterization of a set of tense-aspect categories {PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE, PERFECT, PROGRESSIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE}. The tense-aspect categories characterized are universal discourse construction notions, which operate at the level of cognitive construction. Among other things, each tense-aspect category gives a set of instructions for the arrangement of {BASE,, EVENT, }. After a presentation of the tense-aspect categories in section 3.4, section 3.5 will show how these tense-aspect categories function to set up and signal shifts in {BASE,, EVENT, } using real discourse data. 32 Although a previous BASE is eligible to become BASE, BASE shifts are not random. The BASE tends to return only to some recently activated BASE, where the V- POINT is still retrievable from memory. A random shift in BASE would violate other pragmatic principles of coherence, relevance, and communication function. The issue of BASE shifts, in particular the different types of BASE spaces which may be set up in discourse-narrative, is the subject of chapter 7.

21 Tense-Aspect Discourse Links In this section, I propose characterizations for a set of putatively universal tenseaspect categories {PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE, PERFECT, PROGRESSIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE}. These tense-aspect categories are characterized as discourse construction notions, each being a certain universal type of local link between spaces. The characterizations given here will provide a basis for the discussion of tenseaspect in the remainder of this dissertation. The written characterizations of the tenseaspect discourse categories are partial instructions for the cognitive construction process. Each characterization is presented with a figure which illustrates the local link which results from interpretation of the given category where it occurs in a well-formed context. The figures are not static representation of semantic form; but rather, they represent the output of the dynamic interpretation process as a result of the instructions given by the particular link or category. The categories {PRESENT, PAST, FUTURE, PERFECT, PROGRESSIVE} only set up and assign properties to the daughter space N and to the link between daughter space N and its parent. In a well-formed context, the parent space will already be provided. The categories {IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE} only assign a relation between and. In a well-formed context, the space will already be provided.

22 88 (3.2) PAST identifies or cues construction of some PAST space N. It indicates that: i) N is in ii) N's parent is iii) N's time is prior to (parent) iv) events or properties represented in N are FACT from (parent) FIGURE 3.11 PAST space N: PAST FACT prior to M

23 89 (3.3) PRESENT identifies or cues construction of some PRESENT space N. It indicates that: i) N is in ii) N or N's parent is iii) the time frame represented in N is not prior to /BASE iv) events or properties represented in N are FACT. FIGURE 3.12 PRESENT PRESENT FACT not prior to BASE - or - space N: PRESENT FACT not prior to BASE

24 90 (3.4) FUTURE identifies or cues construction of some FUTURE space N. It indicates that: i) N is in ii) N's parent is iii) the time frame represented in N is posterior to iv) events or properties represented in N are PREDICTION from FIGURE 3.13 FUTURE space N: FUTURE PREDICTION posterior to M

25 91 (3.5) PERFECT identifies or cues construction of an EVENT space N. It indicates that: i) N is not in ii) N's parent is iii) N's time is prior to that of 33 FIGURE 3.14 PERFECT space N: EVENT prior to M 33 N s time is prior to, but not necessarily prior to the whole temporal frame of the parent space.

26 92 (3.6) PROGRESSIVE identifies or cues construction of an EVENT space N. It indicates that:34 i) N is not in ii) N's parent is iii) the time period represented in N includes. is during N. FIGURE 3.15 PROGRESSIVE space N: EVENT during N 34 This characterization of the PROGRESSIVE is based on the ideas of Dinsmore (1991) and Lansing (to appear).

27 93 (3.7) The IMPERFECTIVE identifies a space N and indicates that: i) N is FIGURE 3.16 IMPERFECTIVE (3.8) The PERFECTIVE identifies a space N and indicates that: i) N is not FIGURE 3.17 PERFECTIVE In the discourse interpretation process, these tense-aspect categories (or discourse links) and the markers which encode them, impose a set of constraints on the cognitive construction process. Each tense-aspect category issues a certain set of instructions to the

28 94 language decoder about the space configuration to be built, instructions which may include the assignment of local time connections between spaces, the assignment of a or non- status, the assignment of a FACT or PREDICTION status, as well as instructions concerning the arrangement of {BASE,, EVENT, } over a set of spaces. The tense-aspect categories characterized here are not representations of semantic form, nor are they intended as language specific grammatical categories. But rather, they are characterizations of conceptual discourse links, which operate at the cognitive construction level, and which in the strongest possible claim, are universal.35 Each tenseaspect category is a universal type of local link between spaces, a local relationship which may be established between spaces as part of the underlying cognitive structure. These discourse links are conceptual notions which are separate from language, but which may be encoded by the grammatical conventions of individual languages. In this dissertation, the convention (CAPS), i.e. PRESENT, PAST, PERFECT, etc..., will be used to indicate the discourse notions which operate at the cognitive construction level. The convention (Caps), i.e. Simple Present, Past Perfect, Present Progressive, Imparfait, Plus-que-Parfait, etc..., will be used to indicate language specific tense markers, which may encode the universal discourse categories or other cognitive conceptual material. Non-language specific grammatical markers will occur with the word tense. The convention (no caps), i.e. future, present, past, is used for real world time concepts. 35 The cross-linguistic work on tense of Bybee and Dahl (1989) shows that 70-80% of the grammatical morphemes marking tense-aspect belong to one of six types: past, future, perfect, progressive, imperfective, and perfective. The present is unmarked in the majority of cases. The categories adopted here correspond roughly to the universal tense categories proposed by Bybbe and Dahl (1989).

29 95 In a given language, a particular link or set of links may map onto a particular marker or set of markers, although mapping is not directly one to one.36 The coding for the PAST in English, for example, is the Simple Past. The Simple Past in (3.9) codes the category PAST and the set of instructions for the construction of the discourse link indicated by this category. (3.9) Margaret ate an ice cream The Simple Past in (3.9) maps onto the category PAST, which imposes a certain set of constraints on the space construction process.37 The output of (3.9) is represented in Figure A single tense-aspect discourse link may map onto more than one language specific marker. A particular language specific marker may also encode more than one type of link. A particular language specific marker may encode a universal link and other more language specific discourse semantic notions or cognitive conceptual material. In any given language, some or all of these universal links may not be marked by tense at all, although the space configuration may be set up by other grammatical, lexical, or pragmatic means The constraints imposed by the tense link PAST were represented in Figure

30 96 FIGURE 3.18 Margaret ate an ice cream a space N: PAST FACT prior to M b a: name Margaret b: ice cream EAT a b The PAST either identifies a space N which is already tagged PAST or cues construction of a PAST space N, whose parent space is. Space N is put in and assigned a status as a FACT space. A local time relation is established between space N and its parent, i.e. space N is prior to its parent. Space N is structured by the information encoded in sentence (3.9). In this de-contextualized sentence, parent space M would be the BASE of speaker reality, by default. The tense categories {PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE} either identify a space which is already tagged {PAST, PRESENT, or FUTURE} or tag a new space N as {PAST, PRESENT, or FUTURE}, putting N in and assigning space N certain relational properties vis-a-vis other spaces. In particular, the tense categories {PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE} assign a local time connection between space N and or V- POINT/BASE. For example, the PAST in (3.9) assigns a local time connection between space M and space N; space M is prior to space M, as shown in Figure Tense

31 97 categories also assign space N a FACT/PREDICTION status. Tense categories may be divided into two groups. The PAST and PRESENT are FACT markers; they assign space N a FACT status in relation to. The FUTURE is a PREDICTION marker; it assigns space N a PREDICTION status in relation to.38 The discourse links {PAST, PRESENT, and FUTURE} may also combine with each other in various ways. For example, PAST may combine with PAST to produce a PAST of PAST (as in one possible reading of the English Pluperfect), or PAST may combine with FUTURE to produce a PAST FUTURE (FUTURE of the PAST) or a FUTURE PAST (PAST of the FUTURE). A chain of links may map onto and be encoded by the grammatical markers of a language. The Future of the Past, as in (3.10) for example, codes the combined categories PAST FUTURE.39 (3.10) Margaret would eat all of the ice cream before dinner. The PAST FUTURE (FUTURE of the PAST) imposes a sequential set of constraints and gives a sequential set of instructions for the cognitive construction process. First, the 38 The PRESENT, PAST, and FUTURE, and the markers which encode these categories in French and English, will be discussed in detail in chapter 4. We will also explore the full utility of the FACT/PREDICTION distinction in the discussion of individual tense markers in chapter 4 and in the discussion of indirect speech in chapter 6. As we will see in these chapters, the FACT/PREDICTION distinction, the prior/non-prior distinction, and the characterization of tense in terms of rather than in terms of some notion of speech time will allow us to account quite painlessly for much of the seemingly odd behavior of Past, Present, and Future tenses, at the clause level and in the embedded clauses of speech verbs. 39 In this case, the morphological form reflects the combination of links, but this is not necessarily the case in all instances.

32 PAST imposes a set of constraints, which results in the space configuration represented in Figure FIGURE 3.19 PAST space N: PAST FACT prior to M For this de-contextualized sentence, the parent space M would be speaker reality and BASE by default. The FUTURE, building on from space N, imposes an additional set of constraints on the space construction process, resulting in the space configuration represented in Figure 3.20.

33 99 FIGURE 3.20 PAST FUTURE Margaret would eat all of the ice cream space N: PAST FACT prior to M a b a: name Margaret b: ice cream EAT a b space N1: PREDICTION posterior to N Building on from space N, the FUTURE identifies or cues construction of some FUTURE space, represented here as space N1. As a result of the constraints imposed by the FUTURE, shifts from space M to space N. (Discourse Principle 8 allows to shift to ). Parent space N becomes and shifts to daughter space N1. (Discourse Principle 7 allows to shift to a new space). Space N1 is assigned a PREDICTION status in relation to the parent V- POINT40 and a local temporal relation of posteriority is established between space N1 and the parent. Space N1 is structured by the frame eat and the 40 Note that the FACT/PREDICTION status assigned a space in relation to parent may be different from the FACT/PREDICTION status a space has in relation to BASE.

34 information in sentence (3.10).41 Again, for this de-contextualized sentence, the initial parent space M would be the BASE of speaker reality by default. 100 The aspectual categories {PERFECT, PROGRESSIVE, IMPERFECTIVE, PERFECTIVE} may also combine with tense categories in various ways. Aspectual categories give important information about the arrangement of and, but aspectual categories are distinct from tense categories in that they do not put a space in. For example, the IMPERFECTIVE may combine with PAST to form a PAST IMPERFECTIVE. In this case, the IMPERFECTIVE functions to signal a within the space set up by the category PAST. The PERFECT may combine with tense to form a PRESENT, PAST, or FUTURE PERFECT. For example, the set of combined links PAST PERFECT is coded by the English Present Perfect as in (3.11). (3.11) Margaret had eaten the ice cream before dinner. The PAST cues the construction of a space configuration as in that represented in Figure 3.19 above. Building on from the configuration cued by the PAST, the PERFECT imposes an additional set of constraints. The resulting space configuration is diagrammed in Figure Optimization and spreading will also structure the spaces to be maximally similar, so entities may also be set up in parent spaces as a result of optimization processes.

35 101 FIGURE 3.21 Margaret had eaten the ice cream space N: PAST FACT prior to M a b a: name Margaret b: ice cream EAT a b space N1: EVENT prior to N Building from space M in Figure 3.19, the PERFECT identifies or cues construction of an EVENT space, which is NOT in. shifts from space M to space N. (Discourse Principle 8 allows to shift to ). The PERFECT also assigns a local time connection between space N and space N1. The EVENT space N1 is prior to the parent space, which is. Information encoded in (3.11) structures the EVENT space N1, as shown in Figure For this de-contextualized sentence, the initial parent space M would be the BASE of speaker reality by default. Where the local tense-aspect links are combined, the space set up by the 42 The state which results from the event EAT may be inherited into space N.

36 102 first link in the sequence serves as the for anchoring the second link. The characterizations of tense-aspect given here predict that only certain orderings will be possible. The PRESENT, PAST, or FUTURE, for example, must precede the PERFECT, since the tense link provides the space which serves as parent and to the EVENT space set up by the PERFECT.43 Tense-aspect and tense-tense link combinations and the markers which encode combined links will be discussed in detail in chapter 4. Links or sets of links form an access path to a target space. That access path is always anchored to /BASE or some other. When a space is targeted, the whole path is traced; this in turn is mapped onto the grammatical conventions of the language. A language specific tense-aspect marker or set of markers reflects the entire access path followed to access a particular space. In the case of a simple tense category, a simple link, a space is accessed directly from or /BASE. The access path is a local one between spaces. In the case of a combined tense-aspect form, a chain of links, the target space is accessed from or /BASE via one or more other spaces. The parent of the target space must become. 43 The set of markers which encode a chain of links, a particular access path, may occur in any order.

37 Distribution and Redistribution of {BASE,, EVENT, } We are now in a position to show how the instructions provided by tense-aspect categories, as characterized in section 3.4, combine with the Discourse Principles proposed in section 3.2, to constrain step by step the output generated in the processing and interpretation of a given discourse. In this section, we will show the kinds of operations, the kinds of distribution and redistribution, which {, BASE, V- POINT, EVENT} can undergo during the discourse interpretation process Operations which involve In the interpretation of discourse, space may remain, may shift to an EVENT space, to the BASE, to a previous space, or a new space may be created (Discourse Principle 7). These operations can be illustrated in the discussion of example (3.12) below. Imagine that we are engaged in a conversation about a friend Gertrude in which the following utterance is made. (3.12) Gertrude is very happy. She has finally finished the painting for the exhibition. She finished it last week. It s her best painting ever. We may assume that Gertrude names a background element in BASE space, R. Given that Gertrude is part of our background knowledge, we begin with the space configuration in Figure 3.22.

38 104 FIGURE 3.22 BASE of speaker reality a: name Gertrude a space R: BASE With the interpretation of the first sentence, 'Gertrude is very happy', the space configuration represented in Figure 3.22 is updated. The output is the space configuration diagrammed in Figure 3.23 below. FIGURE 3.23 Gertrude is very happy a: name Gertrude happy a a space R: BASE (EVENT) PRESENT The PRESENT, encoded in English by the Simple Present, sets up or identifies a space which is not prior to the BASE. In this case, BASE space R is put in and the space is. Space R, speaker reality, is internally structured by the linguistic information which provides the frame 'happy x'. The role x is filled by element a, named Gertrude.

39 105 With interpretation of the second sentence, 'she has finally finished the painting', the construction in Figure 3.23 is dynamically updated. The output of the second sentence is diagrammed in Figure FIGURE 3.24 She has finally finished the painting a: name Gertrude happy a a b' space R: BASE PRESENT b: painting FINISH a' b EVENT prior to R a' b The space construction built for sentence 2 must meet the constraints imposed by the PRESENT PERFECT (encoded by the Present Perfect). The constraints of the PRESENT are already met in the space configuration set up by the previous discourse, as in Figure Hence, the PRESENT will identify space R. The PERFECT sets up or identifies an EVENT space M, which is prior to a parent space. Space R is already available from the previous construction, Figure In order for the constraints imposed by the PRESENT PERFECT to be met, only an additional EVENT space, daughter space M, must be constructed.

40 106 As a result of the PRESENT PERFECT construction, space M is structured internally by the expression ' finish '. An entity b, the painting, is set up in time space M. Its counterpart, entity b, is constructed in space R, since we can assume that the painting also exists as an entity in speaker reality. A cognitive link is established between the painting and its counterpart.44 A counterpart of Gertrude, a, is set up in space M and a cognitive link is established between Gertrude and her younger self. The resultant states and properties associated with the completion of the event ' finish ' may be inherited into space R. In this example the remains and the BASE remains BASE. In the dynamic change from Figure 3.23 to 3.24, we see Discourse Principles 5 and 9 at work. Principle 5 allows a new space to be built from BASE or. In this case a new space is built from space R, which is both BASE and. Principle 9 allows EVENT to shift to a new space which is daughter of, in this case space M. With the interpretation of the third sentence, 'She finished it last week', the space configuration is again updated. The resulting space configuration is diagrammed in Figure The link between the same entity in different time spaces is a common type of cognitive link.

41 107 FIGURE 3.25 She finished it last week a: name Gertrude happy a b' space R: BASE PRESENT a a' b time space: "last week" b: painting FINISH a' b (EVENT) PAST prior to R From the Simple Present in sentence 2, the tense shifts to the Simple Past, a PAST, in sentence 3. The PAST sets up or identifies a PAST space, which is prior to V- POINT. In Figure 3.24, a space, space R, is already available. A space which is prior to the, space M, is also already available, however, this space is not in. In sentence 3, the tense shift from PRESENT to PAST cues a shift in space. shifts from the PRESENT space R in Figure 3.24 to space M in Figure EVENT space M is put in and given a more exact temporal value by the expression 'last week'. From Figure 3.24 to 3.25, we see Discourse Principle 7, which allows to shift to EVENT, at work. With the interpretation of sentence 4, 'It's her best painting ever', the space configuration is again updated. The output is diagrammed in Figure 3.26.

42 108 FIGURE 3.26 It s her best painting ever a: name Gertrude happy a best b' space R: BASE PRESENT a b' a' b time space: "last week" b: painting FINISH a' b PAST prior to R The PRESENT sets up or identifies a space which is not prior to BASE. Space R already meets the requirements imposed by the PRESENT, thus, the tense shift to the PRESENT cues a shift in back to BASE space R. Space M loses its status as space and is no longer an activated part of the interpretation and construction process. From Figure 3.25 to 3.26 we see a number of Discourse Principles in action. Principle 7 allows to shift to BASE. Principle 4 stipulates that if is BASE, is BASE. Principle 9 allows EVENT to be. In this section, we have seen that may undergo a number of operations as allowed by Discourse Principle 7. can remain, it may shift to an EVENT space, to the BASE or to a previous space. A new space may also be created.

43 Operations which involve BASE In the interpretation of discourse, BASE can remain BASE, BASE can shift to any or to any previous BASE (Discourse Principle 6). We may illustrate the operations BASE may undergo by considering the following examples. Imagine that we are engaged in a similar conversation about Gertrude, where the following utterances occur. (3.13) Gertrude finally finished the painting for the exhibition. She said it was her best painting ever. The output of the interpretation of the first sentence, 'Gertrude finally finished the painting for the exhibition', results in a space configuration diagrammed in Figure FIGURE 3.27 Gertrude finally finished the painting for the exhibition a: name Gertrude a b' space R: BASE () PRESENT b: painting FINISH a' b a' b (EVENT) PAST prior to R

44 110 We may assume that Gertrude, since she is named, and the painting, since it is referred to by a definite article, are background entities in space R. The PAST sets up or identifies a PAST space which is prior to its parent. Since no PAST space is available from the previous discourse, and no space-builders are present, a PAST space must be constructed. In the absence of space-builders, tense cues construction of PAST space M. Space M is internally structured by the frame 'x finish y'. The roles of this frame x and y are filled by the elements a and b, respectively. The expression 'she said' in sentence 2 updates the space configuration in Figure 3.27 as shown in Figure FIGURE 3.28 She said... a: name Gertrude space R: BASE PRESENT a b' b: painting FINISH a' b SAY a' PAST prior to R a' b speech space: experiencer = time space M1:

45 111 The PAST sets up or identifies a space which is prior to. Space M already fits these constraints; it is already available as a PAST space. The expression ' say ' adds additional structure to space M, (frame 'x say', with the role x filled by the value a), and sets up a new speech space, space M1. The speech space automatically carries an inherent role associated with, i.e. linked to, an experiencer (Sells 1987). Speech spaces have a number of special properties which will be discussed in detail in chapter 6. The interpretation of the subordinate clause of the speech verb 'it was her best painting ever' updates the space configuration in Figure 3.28 as shown in Figure 3.29.

46 112 FIGURE it was her best painting ever space R: BASE () PRESENT a b' a: name Gertrude b: painting FINISH a' b SAY a' b prior to R a' speech space: experiencer best b" b'' a'' space M1: PAST prior to With indirect speech, the BASE does not change. The shifts to space M1. The speech space, space M1, is structured by the frame 'best '. Space M1 is accessed directly from BASE.45 The counterparts of a, Gertrude, and b, the painting, are set up as elements in space M1. Now let us consider a similar example which involves direct speech. 45 In chapter 6, we will see that speech space have special properties, including special access properties.

47 113 (3.14) Gertrude finally finished the painting for the exhibition. She said: "It is my best painting ever". If we replace the indirect quotation of (3.13) with a direct quotation (3.14), "It is my best painting ever", the space configuration in Figure 3.28 above is updated as in Figure 3.30 below. FIGURE 3.30 It is my best painting ever space R: a b' b PAST prior to R a' b'' speech space: experiencer best b" space M1: BASE PRESENT

48 114 As a speech space, space M1 has a number of special properties. M1 automatically carries an inherent role associated with an experiencer.46 This role makes space M1 available as a BASE, since according to Discourse Principle 6, BASE may shift to any. While in the indirect quote, the BASE stays BASE, in the direct quote, the BASE shifts to the of space M1, as shown in Figure From Figure 3.29 to Figure 3.30, the BASE shifts to the provided by the experiencer roles associated with the speech space. Other types of BASE shifts are possible in addition to that involved in direct speech. BASE shifts will be the subject of chapter 7. In this section, we have seen that BASE can shift to. BASE can also shift to any previous BASE Operations which involve In the interpretation of discourse, can remain or can shift to or to BASE (Discourse Principle 8). Example of these operations will be given below. BASE is the initial (Discourse Principle 3). In the canonical case, the is BASE and BASE always remains available as a V- POINT, since can always shift to BASE. (3.15) Since the gangrene started in his right leg he had no pain and with the pain the horror had gone and all he felt now was a great tiredness and anger that this was the end of it. (Ernest Hemingway, the Snows of Kilimanjaro, p.5) 46 See chapter 6 for a discussion of this.

49 Interpretation of the expression 'Since the gangrene started in his right leg he had no pain...' results in a space configuration diagrammed schematically in FIGURE 3.31 Since the gangrene started in his right leg he had no pain space B: BASE a (EVENT) PAST prior to B c b a: male b: leg, body part of a c: gangrene START c (in) b Given that this is a work of fiction, the BASE is not speaker reality, but rather is a BASE space set up for the 'implied external author'. See chapter 7 for a discussion of this. The PAST sets up or identifies a PAST space from a parent. The BASE space provides an initial. A space M, which is prior to the BASE, will be set up to meet the constraints imposed by the PAST. The expressions ' start ', and ' have ' internally structure space M. 'Since' assigns a temporal boundary to the temporal frame represented in the time space and the situation expressed in ' have '. Given that this example is from a piece of fiction, we may assume that 'he' refers to a male character, already a part of the reader's background knowledge about the story.

50 116 With the phrase '...and with the pain the horror had gone...' the configuration in Figure 3.31 is updated. The output is represented in Figure FIGURE and with the pain the horror had gone... space B: BASE c a: male b: leg, body part of a c: gangrene START c (in) b a b PAST prior to B e d: pain e: horror GO e GO d d space M1: EVENT prior to M The PAST PERFECT imposes a sequence of constraints. First, the PAST sets up or identifies a PAST space, which is prior to a parent. A parent V- POINT and a PAST space are already provided by space B and space M in the previous configuration Figure Second, building on from space M, the PERFECT sets up or identifies an EVENT space which is prior to. In order to

51 117 meet this constraint, must shift to the PAST space M and an EVENT space which is prior to M must be constructed. Principle 8 allows to shift to. We can see this principle at work in the dynamic change from Figure 3.31 to Figure The EVENT space is internally structured by the PERFECT expression 'with the pain the horror had gone'. The resultant states and properties associated with the completion of the events ' go' in space M1 may be inherited into parent space M. With the expression '... and all he felt now was a great tiredness and anger...' the space configuration is updated. The output is represented in Figure FIGURE and all he felt now was a great tiredness and anger... space B: BASE a c b a: male b: leg, body part of a c: gangrene START c (in) b f: tiredness g: anger FELT a f (and) g (EVENT) PAST prior to B e d: pain e: horror GO e GO d d space M1: prior to M

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