Homework Set #8 10/31/16 Due 11/7/16 Chapter 10 Review Questions 7, 9 Problems 3, 7. Chapter 11 Review Questions 3, 7 Problems 5, 9

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1 Homework Set #8 10/31/16 Due 11/7/16 Chapter 10 Review Questions 7, 9 Problems 3, 7 Chapter 11 Review Questions 3, 7 Problems 5, 9

2 Interstellar Extinction The dimming of light from stars and other distant objects, especially pronounced in the galactic plane, due the combined effects of interstellar absorption and scattering of light by dust particles. - About 2 magnitudes per 1000 pc in solar neighborhood. - -increases at shorter (bluer) wavelengths, resulting in interstellar reddening. - least in the radio and infrared region - makes these wavelengths suitable for seeing across large distances in the galactic plane and, in particular, for probing the nucleus of the Milky Way. Extinction curve - broad 'bump' at about 2200 Å, well into the UV region of electromagnetic spectrum. - first observed in the 1960s - origin still not well understood. - thought to be caused by organic carbon and amorphous silicates present in interstellar grains. PHYS

3 Observing Neutral Hydrogen: The 21-cm (radio) line Electrons in the ground state of neutral hydrogen have slightly different energies, depending on their spin orientation. Opposite magnetic fields attract => Lower energy Magnetic field due to proton spin 21 cm line Equal magnetic fields repel => Higher energy Magnetic field due to electron spin

4 The 21-cm Line of Neutral Hydrogen Transitions from the higher-energy to the lower-energy spin state produce a characteristic 21-cm radio emission line. => Neutral hydrogen (HI) can be traced by observing this radio emission.

5 Observations of the 21-cm Line G a l a c t i c p l a n e All-sky map of emission in the 21-cm line

6 Observations of the 21-cm Line HI clouds moving towards Earth HI clouds moving away from Earth Individual HI clouds with different radial velocities resolved Can be used to calculate the relative (from speed redshift/blueshift of each arm of of line) our galaxy and the rotation curve of our (and other) galaxy. It is then possible to use the plot of the rotation curve and the velocity to determine the distance to a certain point within the galaxy.

7 Rotation curve of the typical spiral galaxy M 33 (yellow and blue points with errorbars) and the predicted one from distribution of the visible matter (white line). The discrepancy between the two curves is accounted for by adding a dark matter halo surrounding the galaxy.

8 Gravitational Collapse How do large, cold, high density clouds/nebulae become stars? Gravity is the key. Cloud given a push by some event. perhaps the shock wave from a nearby supernova As the cloud shrinks, gravity increases, causing collapse. As the cloud falls inward, gravitational potential energy is converted to heat. Conservation of Energy As the nebula s radius decreases, it rotates faster Conservation of Angular Momentum Star forms in the very center of the nebula. temperature & density high enough for nuclear fusion reactions to begin

9 Shocks Triggering Star Formation Globules = sites where stars are being born right now! Trifid Nebula

10 Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation Previous star formation can trigger further star formation through: a) Shocks from supernovae: The Crab Nebula Massive stars die young => Supernovae tend to happen near sites of recent star formation

11 Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation Previous star formation can trigger further star formation through: b) Ionization fronts of hot, massive O or B stars which produce a lot of UV radiation: Massive stars die young => O and B stars only exist near sites of recent star formation

12 Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation Giant molecular clouds are very large and may occasionally collide with each other c) Collisions of giant molecular clouds.

13 Sources of Shock Waves Triggering Star Formation d) Spiral arms in galaxies like our Milky Way: Spirals arms are probably rotating shock wave patterns.

14 Original cloud large and diffuse - begins to collapse. Final density, shape, size, and temperature the result of three processes: Heating - cloud heats up due to conservation of energy - as cloud shrank, gravitational energy converted to kinetic energy - collisions convert KE into random motions of thermal energy - density and temperature greatest at center Spinning - conservation of angular momentum causes rotation to increase as cloud collapses - all material doesn t collapse to middle because the greater the angular momentum of a cloud the more spread out it will be. Flattening - cloud flattens to a disk - different clumps of gas collide and merged - random motion of clumps becomes average motion - becomes more orderly flattening original cloud s lumpy shape - orbits also become more circular

15 Nebula Flattening As a nebula collapses, clumps of gas collided and merged. Their random velocities averaged out into the nebula s direction of rotation. The spinning nebula assumed the shape of a disk.

16 Collapse of Solar Nebula Animation

17 Formation of Protoplanetary Disk Animation

18 Protostars Protostars = pre-birth state of stars: Hydrogen to Helium fusion not yet ignited Still enshrouded in opaque cocoons of dust => barely visible in the optical, but bright in the infrared - dust cocoon absorbs almost all of the visible radiation - grows warm and reemits energy as IR radiation

19 Heating By Contraction As a protostar contracts, it heats up:

20 Life tracks from protostar to the main sequence for stars of different masses. Star emerges from the enshrouding dust cocoon (birth line) - solar wind blows dust out and away More massive stars have higher gravity and contract faster Ignition of H He fusion processes

21 Formation of the Solar Protoplanetary Disk By the time solar nebula had shrunk to 200 AU, became flattened, spinning disk - called a protoplanetary disk The Sun formed in the very center of the nebula. temperature & density were high enough for nuclear fusion reactions to begin The planets formed in the rest of the disk. Three processes - heating, spinning, flattening - produced orderly motions. Explains: all planets lie along one plane (in the disk) all planets orbit in one direction (the spin direction of the disk) the Sun rotates in the same direction the planets would tend to rotate in this same direction most moons orbit in this direction most planetary orbits are near circular (collisions in the disk)

22 Strong Support for the Nebular Theory Computer simulations can reproduce most of the observed motions We have observed disks around other stars. These could be new planetary systems in formation. β Pictoris AB Auriga

23 Proplyds Proplyds - disks of dust and gas surrounding newly formed stars. - of the five stars - all pre main sequence - in this field which spans about 0.14 light years, four appear to have associated proplyds - three bright ones and one dark one seen in silhouette against the bright nebula. - more complete survey of 110 stars in the region found 56 with proplyds.

24 Disks seen only in silhouette, - the absence of emission lines at an edge indicates that they are not being illuminated by ionizing photons or flux is so low that the emission is less than that of the background nebula. - may be located within the foreground

25 Some bright proplyds have dark disks silhouetted against both the background nebula as well as the ionization fronts of the proplyd. - bright cusp, and extended comet-like tails. - well defined axes tended to be pointed toward an ionizing star. - form envelopes of dust as protoplanetary disks overtaken by the ionization front.

26 HST10 - a protostar in the Orion Nebula surrounded by a cocoon of dust and gas distorted into a teardrop shape by interstellar winds and radiation from nearby hot stars. Inside the teardrop, a disk of dark protoplanetary material roughly the size of our solar system orbits the star. The other images depict a model of HST10 from viewpoints left of, beside, and right of the proplyd. PHYS

27 PHYS Astronomy Protostellar Disks and Jets Herbig Haro Objects Disks of matter accreted onto a protostar ( accretion disks ) often lead to the formation of jets (directed outflows; bipolar outflows) - originate from the star and the inner parts of the disk and become confined to a narrow beam within a few billion miles of their source. - not known how the jets are focused, or collimated. Suggested that magnetic fields, generated by the star or disk, might constrain the jets. When they strike interstellar medium/nebula - produce Herbig Haro Objects - small nebulae that fluctuate in brightness

28 PHYS Astronomy Protostellar Disks and Jets Herbig Haro Objects HH34 Almost 50 years ago, George Herbig and Guillermo Haro independently discovered a number of compact nebulae with peculiar spectra near dark clouds. - subsequently demonstrated that these objects were shockexcited nebulae. - shown that the large range of excitation conditions requires bow shocks and other complex morphologies. By the early 1980s, several Herbig-Haro (HH) objects shown to be highly collimated jets of partially ionized plasma moving away from young stars at speeds of 100 to over 1000 km/s.

29 PHYS Astronomy Stellar Jets Of the 56 proplyds observed in the Orion nebula, 23 had visible jets.

30 PHYS Astronomy Stellar Jets Gases clumped - could provide insights into the nature of the disk collapsing onto the star. Beaded jet structure "ticker tape" recording of how clumps of material have, episodically, fallen onto the star. jets "wiggle" along their multi-trillion-mile long paths, suggesting the gaseous fountains change their position and direction. - might be evidence for a stellar companion or planetary system that pulls on the central star, causing it to wobble, which in turn causes the jet to change directions knots due to 'sputtering' of the central engine HH30 Ubiquitous in the universe - occur over a vast range of energies and physical scales, in a variety of phenomena.

31 PHYS Astronomy Protostellar Disks and Jets Herbig Haro Objects Herbig Haro Object HH30

32 PHYS Astronomy XZ Tauri XZ Tauri - young system with two stars orbiting each other - separated by about 6 billion kilometers (about the distance from the Sun to Pluto) - shows bubble of hot, glowing gas extending nearly 96 billion kilometers from this young star system. - appears much broader than the narrow jets seen in other young stars, but it is caused by the same process - the ejection of gas from a star.

33 PHYS Astronomy Fox Fur Nebula Evidence of Star Formation Observe regions containing young stars - must have formed recently - lie between birth line and main sequence Nebula around S Monocerotis: Regions of star formation rich in dust and gas and contain IR protostars and stars still contracting toward the main sequence Contains many massive, very young stars - O associations Also includes T Tauri Stars generally low mass stars, strongly variable; bright in the infrared - T associations

34 PHYS Astronomy Main Sequence Low-mass star formation in upper Scorpius - dashed lines evolutionary tracks of observed low-mass stars - all the low-mass PMS (pre-main sequence) stars have a mean age of about 5 Myr and show no evidence for a large age dispersion. - thin solid lines isochrones at 0.1, 0.3, 1, 3, 10, 30 Myr

35 PHYS Astronomy Evidence of Star Formation Stellar formation itself triggers star evolutions - massive stars ionization fronts compress nearby gasses - trigger Young, very massive star Smaller, sunlike stars, probably formed under the influence of the massive star Optical The Cone Nebula Infrared

36 PHYS Astronomy Evidence of Star Formation Star Forming Region RCW 38

37 PHYS Astronomy Open Clusters of Stars Large masses of Giant Molecular Clouds => Stars do not form isolated, but in large groups, called Open Clusters of Stars. Open Cluster M7

38 PHYS Astronomy Open Clusters of Stars Large, dense cluster of (yellow and red) stars in the foreground; ~ 50 million years old Scattered individual (bright, white) stars in the background; only ~ 4 million years old

39 PHYS Astronomy Globules Bok Globules: ~ 10 to 1000 solar masses; Contracting to form protostars

40 PHYS Astronomy Globules Evaporating Gaseous Globules ( EGGs ): Newly forming stars exposed by the ionizing radiation from nearby massive stars - Shadows of the EGGs protect gas behind them, resulting in the finger-like structures at the top of the cloud. - Forming inside at least some of the EGGs are embryonic stars -- abruptly stop growing when the EGGs are uncovered - separated from the larger reservoir of gas from which they were drawing mass. Eventually emerge as the EGGs themselves succumb to photoevaporation. The pillar is slowly eroding away by the ultraviolet light from nearby hot stars - "photoevaporation". As it does, small globules of especially dense gas buried within the cloud are uncovered.

41 PHYS Astronomy

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