COSMIC RAYS AT EARTH

Transcription

1 COSMIC RAYS AT EARTH Researcher's Reference Manual and Data Book Peter K.R Grieder Institute of Physics University of Bern Bern, Switzerland 2001 ELSEVIER Amsterdam - London - New York - Oxford - Paris - Shannon -Tokyo

2 Contents Preface Comments for Reader Acknowledgements v viii ix Cosmic Ray Properties, Relations and Definitions Introduction General Comments Heliospheric Effects and Solar Modulation Propagation of the Hadronic Component in the Atmosphere Strong Interactions Energy Transport Secondary Particles Production of Secondary Particles Energy Spectra of Secondary Particles Decay of Secondaries Decay versus Interaction of Secondaries Electromagnetic Processes and Energy Losses Ionization and Excitation Bremsstrahlung and Pair Production Vertical Development in the Atmosphere Definition of Common Observables Directional Intensity Flux Omnidirectional or Integrated Intensity Zenith Angle Dependence Attenuation Length Altitude Dependence Differential Energy Spectrum 27 XI

3 xii CONTENTS Integral Energy Spectrum The Atmosphere Characteristic Data and Relations Zenith Angle Dependence of the Atmospheric Thickness or Column Density Geomagnetic and Heliospheric Effects East-West, Latitude and Longitude Effects Time Variation and Modulation Geomagnetic Cutoff Cosmic Ray Cutoff Terminology Definitions of Geomagnetic Terms 42 References 47 2 Cosmic Rays in the Atmosphere Introduction Charged Hadrons Introduction Flux Measurements and Intensities Energy Spectra Ratio of Neutral to Charged Hadrons Pions and Pion to Proton Ratio Theoretical Aspects and Calculations 68 References 69 Figures Neutrons Introduction Altitude Dependence of Flux and Intensities Energy Spectra Theoretical Contributions 105 References 106 Figures Gamma Rays Introduction Energy Spectra Below 1 TeV Energy Spectra in the TeV-Range Altitude Dependence of Flux and Intensities Zenith Angle Dependence Monochromatic Gamma Lines Theoretical Contributions 142 References 142 Figures 148

4 CONTENTS xiii 2.5 Electrons (Negatrons and Positrons) Introduction Altitude Dependence of Flux and Intensities Energy Spectra Albedo Component Positrons Charge Ratio and Related Data 203 References 203 Figures Muons Introduction Altitude Dependence of Integral Intensity Momentum and Energy Spectra Charge Ratio Theoretical Contributions 241 References 241 Figures Nuclei Introduction Altitude Dependence of Flux and Intensities Fragmentation Probabilities of Nuclei Momentum Spectra Theoretical Aspects 279 References 280 Figures Antinucleons, Antinuclei Introduction, Experimental Data Theoretical Studies and Expected Intensities References 297 Figures Cosmic Rays at Sea Level Introduction 305 References Charged Hadrons Flux Measurements and Intensities Momentum and Energy Spectra Zenith Angle Dependence Charged Pions Charge and Particle Ratios 313

5 xiv CONTENTS Theoretical Contributions 315 References 316 Figures Neutrons Flux Measurements and Intensities Energy Spectra Zenith Angle Dependence 336 References 336 Figures Gamma Rays Experimental Aspects and Data 342 References 342 Figures Electrons (Negatrons and Positrons) Flux Measurements and Intensities Energy Spectra Charge Ratio Zenith Angle Dependence 347 References 347 Figures Muons Introduction Absolute Flux Measurements and Intensities Momentum and Energy Spectra Zenith and Azimuthal Angular Dependence Charge Ratio : Geomagnetic Latitude Dependence Backscattered Muons at Ground Level Theoretical Contributions 378 References 386 Figures Nuclei General Comments 454 References 454 Figures Antinucleons, Antinuclei General Comments 457 References 457

6 CONTENTS xv 4 Cosmic Rays Underground, Underwater and Under Ice Introduction Theoretical Aspects of Muon Physics Introductory Comments Energy Loss and Survival Probability of Muons in Dense Matter Average Range-Energy Relation of Muons Range Fluctuations of Muons Underground and in Water Average Depth-Intensity Relation of Muons Indirect Determination of the Energy Spectrum Underground and Average Energy 474 References Muons Underground General Comments Rock Composition, Standard Rock and Conversion Formula Depth-Intensity Relations and Data Zenith Angle Dependence and Relations Stopping Muons Prompt or Direct Muons Energy Loss Data of Muons Range-Energy Data of Muons Underground Momentum and Energy Spectra of Muons Underground and Derived Sea Level Spectrum Multi-Muon Events and Decoherence 514 References 520 Figures Muons Under Water and Ice General Comments Intensity versus Depth in Water Zenith Angle Dependence at Great Depth in Water Intensity versus Depth in Ice Theoretical Contributions 596 References 598 Figures Neutrinos, General and Atmospheric Introduction Experimental Aspects and Detection Methods Atmospheric Neutrino Production, Properties

7 xvi CONTENTS Theoretical Neutrino Spectra and Data Experimental Results, Early Work Experimental Results, Modern Work 636 References 641 Figures Primary Cosmic Radiation Introduction 669 References Hadrons, Spectra and Composition Introduction All-Particle Spectrum Charge Resolved Energy Spectra and Chemical Composition Isotopic Composition Conclusions from Composition Observations References 705 Figures? Electrons (Positrons and Negatrons) Introduction Energy Spectra Positron Fraction Atmospheric Secondary Electron Contamination Theoretical Contributions 772 References 773 Figures X- and Gamma Rays Introduction General Survey of Gamma Radiation Diffuse Galactic Gamma Radiation Diffuse Cosmic Gamma Radiation Point Sources Gamma Ray Line Spectra Gamma Ray Fraction of Cosmic Radiation 806 References 806 Figures Neutrinos and Antineutrinos General Comments Neutrinos from the Supernova SN-1987A Energetic Neutrinos from Astrophysical Sources.. 843

8 CONTENTS xvii Experimental Upper Limits of Neutrino Fluxes from Astrophysical Point Sources 845 References 848 Figures Antiprotons and Antimatter Discovery of Cosmic Ray Antiprotons Detection Methods Measured Antiproton Intensities and p/p Ratios Antinuclei Theoretical Studies 871 References 874 Figures Heliospheric Phenomena Introduction 893 References Heliospheric, Magnetospheric and Terrestrial Magnetic Fields ^ Introduction ' Heliospheric Magnetic Field and Solar Wind Geomagnetic and Magnetospheric Fields Interplanetary Magnetic Fields 900 References 900 Figures Time Variation and Modulation Effects Introduction Atmospherically Induced Variations Solar Diurnal Variations Sidereal Variations and Anisotropies Compton-Getting Effect Forbush Decreases Day Variations Year and 22-Year Variations Long-Term Variations 913 References 916 Figures Energetic Solar Particles and Photons Introduction Solar Flares Photons and Particles from Solar Flares Ionospheric Effects 931

9 xviii CONTENTS References 931 Figures Anomalous Cosmic Rays Introduction Theoretical Aspects Current Status of Anomalous Cosmic Rays 940 References 940 Figures Solar Neutrinos Introduction The Solar Neutrino Unit (SNU) The Solar Neutrino Problem and Recent Results Homestake Chlorine Detector and Data GALLEX Detector and Data SAGE Detector and Data Kamiokande Detector and Data Super-Kamiokande (SK) Detector and Data New and Future Detectors 959 References 960 Figures Miscellaneous Topics General Comments Cosmogenic Nuclides Introductory Comments Cosmogenic Nuclides in the Atmosphere Cosmogenic Nuclides in Rock 981 References '. 982 Figures Galactic and Intergalactic Magnetic Fields Introduction Galactic Magnetic Fields Intergalactic Magnetic Fields Magnetic Fields of Astrophysical Objects 991 References 992 Figures Antarctic Atmosphere General Comments Determination of Atmospheric Profile and Data References Optical and Related Properties of Water and Ice 996

10 CONTENTS xix General Comments Definitions Depth Profiles of Ocean Parameters Optical Attenuation in Water and Ice Optical Background in Water and Ice Sedimentation in the Ocean 1008 References 1009 Figures 1014 A Miscellaneous Data: Tables 1029 A.I Comments to Tables 1029 A. 1.1 COSPAR Reference Atmosphere 1029 A. 1.2 Solar System Elemental Abundances 1029 A. 1.3 Radiation Lengths and Critical Energies of Materials 1029 A. 1.4 Elements and their Material Parameters 1029 A. 1.5 Muon Energy Losses in Elements and Compounds... p 1030 A. 1.6 Units, Conversion Factors, Constants and Parameters 1031 A.2 COSPAR Reference Atmosphere 1032 A.3 Solar System Elemental Abundances 1035 A.4 Radiation Lengths and Critical Energies 1039 A.5 Elements and their Material Parameters 1040 A.6 Muon Energy Loss in Various Elements 1041 A.7 Muon Energy Loss in Compounds 1043 A.8 Units and Conversion Factors 1045 A.9 Constants and Parameters 1046 References 1047 B Miscellaneous Data: Figures 1049 B.I Comments to Figures 1049 References 1049 B.2 Kinetic Energy - Rigidity Conversion 1051 B.3 Gyroradius versus Proton Energy 1052 B.4 Ionization versus Depth in Atmosphere 1053 B.5 Nucleon Lifetime Limits 1054 C Cosmic Ray Experiments of Past and Present 1055 C.I Cosmic Ray Ground Level Facilities 1055 C.I.I Comments to Tables 1055

11 xx CONTENTS C.1.2 EAS Array Sites of Past and Present 1056 C.I.3 Air Cherenkov Array /Telescope Sites 1058 References 1058 C.I.4 Emulsion Chamber Sites 1059 C.2 Balloon Experiments 1059 C.3 Underground, Underwater, Under Ice Experiments 1060 D Miscellany 1061 D.I Acronyms of some Experiments 1061 D.2 List of Symbols 1064 D.3 List of Abbreviations 1067 D.4 List of Cosmic Ray Conferences 1069 Index 1070