An Introduction to Native North America

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1 SUB Hamburg B/ An Introduction to Native North America Fourth Edition MARK Q. SUTTON Emeritus Professor of Anthropology, California State University, Bakersfleld PEARSON Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

2 Preface i> Introduction The Geography of North America 2 Culture Areas 4 Native North Americans 5 The People 6 Political Entities 7 Population 7 Language 8 Territories and Boundaries 8 Group Names 9 The Role of Women 10 Sex and Gender 11 Contemporary Adoptions of Native American Culture 11 A Brief History of Research on Native North Americans 12 The Impact of Anthropology on Native Cultures 14 Popular Views of Native Americans 15 SIDELIGHT: The Domesticated "Wilderness" 15 SIDELIGHT: The Practice of Scalping 16 A General Prehistory of North America 17 The Origin of Native Peoples in the New World 17 Western Scientific Views on the Origin of Native Americans 19 The Bering Land Bridge 19 The Paleoindian Period 20 The Archaic 21 Subsequent Migrations 22 SIDELIGHT: Weapons and Hunting Technologies 22 The Formative: Agriculture 24 Mesoamerican Influences on Native North America 24 d. European Invasion 25 The Norse Discovery 25 Columbus and the Early Exploration of North America 26 European Colonies in North America 26 The Spanish Colonies 27 French and Russian Business Interests 28 English Colonies 28 Indian Slavery Among the Colonists 28 A Brief History of Governmental Policies Toward Native Americans 29 Pre-Revolutionary War Policies 29 Native Policies of the United States 29 Manifest Destiny 30 Removal and Reservations 31 The Military Solution 32 ' Assimilation 32 The Indian New Deal 33 The American Indian Movement 34 Native Policies of Canada 35

3 Native Policies in Northern Mexico 37 Native Policies in Greenland 38 The Cultural and Biological Impacts of European Intrusion 39 SIDELIGHT: European Disease in the New World 40 The Spanish Mission System 41 Organization of the Missions 41 The Impact of the Missions 42 Native Resistance 43 The Fur Trade 43 SIDELIGHT: Native Tobacco: Then and Now 44 Native Peoples of the Arctic 46 Geography and Environment 48 A Basic Prehistory of the Arctic 49 The Paleoindian Period (to ca. 10,000 B.P.) 50 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 B.P. to Contact) 50 The Contact Period 50 The Impact of European Contact 51 Research 51 A Broad Portrait of Arctic Groups 52 Political Organization 53 Social Organization 54 Economics 56 Material Culture and Technology 57 Religion 60 Arctic Peoples Today 60 SIDELIGHT: Arctic Art 61 Arctic Peoples 62 The Unangan (Aleut): An Arctic Case Study 63 The Inuit of Quebec: An Arctic Case Study 71 4 Native Peoples of the Subarctic si Geography and Environment 81 A Basic Prehistory of the Subarctic 82 The Paleoindian Period (to ca. 10,000 B.P.) 83 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 B.P. to Contact) 83 The Contact Period 83 The Impact of European Contact 84 Research 85 A Broad Portrait of Subarctic Groups 85 Political Organization 86 Social Organization 86 Economics 87 Material Culture and Technology 88 Religion 89 Subarctic Peoples Today 89 Subarctic Peoples 90 The Western Woods Cree: A Subarctic Case Study 91 Native Peoples of the Plateau 100 Geography and Environment 100 A Basic Prehistory of the Plateau 102 The Paleoindian Period (ca. 14,000 to 10,000 B.P.) 102 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 B.P. to Contact) 102 The Contact Period 103 The Impact of European Contact 103 Research 104 A Broad Portrait of Plateau Groups 104 Political Organization 104 Social Organization 105 Economics 106 SIDELIGHT: The Modoc War 106 Material Culture and Technology 108 Religion 108 Plateau Indians Today 109 Plateau Peoples 109 The Nimiipuu (Nez Perce): A Plateau Case Study 110 O VIP PROFILE: Chief Joseph 112 Native Peoples of the Northwest Coast n 9 Geography and Environment 119 A Basic Prehistory of the Northwest Coast 121

4 The Paleoindian Period (ca. 14,000 to 10,000 B.P.) 121 The Early Holocene (ca. 10,000 to 5,000 B.P.) 121 The Middle Holocene (ca. 5,000 to 3,500 B.P.) 122 The Developed Northwest Coast Pattern (ca. 3,500 to 200 B.P.) 122 The Contact Period 122 The Impact of European Contact 123 Research 124 A Broad Portrait of Northwest Coast Groups 124 Political Organization 125 Social Organization 125 The Potlatch 126 Economics 128 Material Culture and Technology 129 Religion 131 SIDELIGHT: Art of the Northwest Coast 131 Northwest Coast Indians Today 132 VIP PROFILE: Chief Seathl 133 Northwest Coast Peoples 133 The Kwakwaka'wakw: A Northwest Coast Case Study 134 / Native Peoples of the Great Basin i 43 Geography and Environment 143 A Basic Prehistory of the Great Basin 145 The Paleoindian Period (ca. 12,000 to 10,000 B.P.) 145 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 B.P. to Contact) 145 Late Farmers 146 The Contact Period 146 VIP PROFILE: Sarah Winnemucca, Northern Paiute Leader 148 The Impact of European Contact 148 Research 149 A Broad Portrait of Great Basin Groups 150 Political Organization 150 Social Organization 151 Economics 151 Material Culture and Technology 153 Religion 154 Great Basin Peoples Today 155 SIDELIGHT: The Ghost Dance Religion 156 Great Basin Peoples 157 The Owens Valley Paiute: A Great Basin Case Study Native Peoples of California i 66 Geography and Environment 167 A Basic Prehistory of California 168 The Paleoindian Period (ca. 12,000 B.P. to 10,000 B.P.) 168 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 B.P. to Contact) 168 The Contact Period 169 The Impact of European Contact 170 Research 170 A Broad Portrait of California Indians 171 Political Organization 171 Social Organization 171 Economics 172 Material Culture and Technology 172 Religion 174 VIP PROFILE: Ishi: "The Last Wild Indian in North America" 173 California Indians Today 174 California Peoples 175 The Yokuts: A California Case Study 176 The Chumash: A California Case Study Native Peoples of the Southwest i89 Geography and Environment 190 A Basic Prehistory of the Southwest 191 The Paleoindian Period (ca. 12,000 to 10,000 B.p.) 191 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 to 2,000 B.P.) 191 Farmers and Pueblos 192 The Contact Period 194 The Impact of European Contact 195

5 Research 195 VIP PROFILE: Geronimo, Apache Leader 196 A Broad Portrait of Southwestern Pueblo Groups 197 Political Organization 198 Social Organization 198 Economics 199 Material Culture and Technology 199 Religion 200 A Broad Portrait of Non-Pueblo Southwestern Groups 201 SIDELIGHT: The Myth of Don Juan 202 Political Organization 203 Social Organization 203 Economics 203 Non-Pueblo Peoples Today 203 Southwestern Peoples 204 The Hopi: A Southwestern Case Study 205 SIDELIGHT: The Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute 208 The Navajo: A Southwestern Case Study 219 The Raramuri: A Southwestern Case Study Native Peoples of the Plains 239 Geography and Environment 239 A Basic Prehistory of the Plains 241 The Paleoindian Period (ca. 12,000 to 9,000 B.P.) 241 The Archaic (ca. 9,000 to 2,500 B.P.) 241 The Plains Woodland Period (ca. 2,500 to 1,000 B.P.) 242 The Plains Village Period (ca. 1,000 B.P. to Contact) 242 The Contact Period 242 The Impact of the Horse on Plains Culture 243 VIP PROFILE: Sitting Bull, Hunkpapa Leader 244 The Impact of European Contact 244 Research A Broad Portrait of Plains Groups 247 Political Organization 248 Plains Warfare 248 Social Organization 249 Economics 250 Material Culture and Technology Religion 253 Plains Indians Today 255 Plains Peoples 255 The Cheyenne: A Plains Case Study 256 The Pawnees: A Plains Case Study Native Peoples of the Northeast 274 Geography and Environment 274 A Basic Prehistory of the Northeast 276 The Paleoindian Period (ca. 15,000 to 10,000 B.P.) 276 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 to 3,000 B.P.) 276 The Woodland Period (ca. 3,000 B.P. to Contact) 277 The Contact Period 278 The Impact of European Contact 279 Research 280 A Broad Portrait of Northeastern Groups 280 Political Organization 281 Warfare 281 VIP PROFILE: Pocahontas 282 Social Organization 283 Economics 283 Material Culture and Technology 284 Religion 285 Northeastern Indians Today 285 Northeastern Peoples 286 The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois): A Northeastern Case Study. 287 VIP PROFILE: Hiawatha 289 The Ottawa: A Northeastern Case Study Native Peoples of the Southeast 307 Geography and Environment 307 A Basic Prehistory of the Southeast 309 The Paleoindian Period (to ca. 10,000 B.P.) 309 VI

6 The Archaic (ca. 10,000 to 3,000 B.P.) 309 The Woodland Period (ca. 3,000 to 1, 100 B.P.) 310 The Mississippian Period (ca. 1,100 to 500 B.P.) 310 The Contact Period 311 SIDELIGHT: The Development of the Seminole 313 The Impact of European Contact 314 Research 314 A Broad Portrait of Southeastern Groups 315 Political Organization 315 Social Organization 316 Economics 317 Material Culture and Technology 318 Religion 319 Southeastern Indians Today 320 Southeastern Peoples 320 The Cherokee: A Southeastern Case Study 322 VIP PROFILE: Sequoyah: Cherokee Leader 324 The Natchez: A Southeastern Case Study 332 Control of the Past 343 NAGPRA 343 Native American Historians, Anthropologists, and Archaeologists 344 Health and Welfare 345 Preservation of Tradition 345 Religion 346 Education 346 Language Revitalization 347 Misuse of Native Images and Traditions 347 Economic Development 348 Gaming 349 Tourism 350 Natural Resources 350 Fishing, Hunting, and Gathering 352 Climate Change 352 Expression 353 The Future 353 SIDELIGHT: Visiting Native North America 353 Internet Resources for Materials on Native Americans Contemporary Issues 339 References and Suggested Readings 358 Glossary 355 Sovereignty and Decolonialism Tribal Recognition 341 Land Claims and Settlements Index 380 VII

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