Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

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2 A. Introduction chemistry science that deals with the composition of substances and the Changes that take place in their composition. Organic chemistry chemistry that deals with organic substances (those that contain carbon and hydrogen ) Biochemistry chemistry of living organisms ; essential for understanding physiology because body functions involve chemical changes that occur within cells. Matter anything that has weight (or mass) and takes up space.it can be solids, liquids, or gases.

3 Energy Energy the ability to do work. Potential energy (PE) is stored energy in matters ; Kinetic energy (KE) is working energy produced by the motion of matters. Energy occurs in 4 forms in the human body : chemical, electrical, radiant, and mechanical energy. chemical energy is the most important form in terms of actually driving chemical reactions.

4 Models of the Atom Figure 2.1

5 Atomic number (AN) = number of protons = number of electrons Atomic weight (AW) = number of protons + number of neutrons

6 IONS In addition to neutrons, the electrons of atoms tend to change also atoms that have either lost or gained electrons are called ions. Atoms that have lost electrons (as a result, now contain more p + than e - ) are called cat ions which carry positive charges, while atoms that have gained excessive electrons (as a result, now contain more e - than p + ) are called anions which carry negative charges.

7 Chemically Reactive Elements Reactive elements do not have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons Figure 2.4b

8 Bonding of atoms Ionic bonding = formed by attraction of opposite charges of a cation and an anion (e.g. Na + + Cl - NaCl).

9 Formation of an Ionic Bond Figure 2.5b

10 Covalent bonding formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms (e.g. Cl + Cl Cl 2 ). The strongest type of bonding.

11 Hydrogen bonding formed by weak attraction between H + and nitrogen (N) or oxygen (O) (e.g. H of a water molecule attracting to O of another water molecule). The weakest type of bonding.

12 Chemical reactions involve the formation, breaking, or rearrangement of chemical bonds. There are 4 general types : Dehydration synthesis : A + B AB + water Decomposition (or hydrolysis) : AB + water A + B Exchange : AB + CD AD + CB Reversible : A + B < > AB

13 The rate of chemical reactions is dependent on 4 factors : size of reacting molecules : smaller molecules have greater kinetic energy which produces faster reaction rate. Temperature : higher temperature creates greater kinetic energy and faster reaction rate. Concentration of reactants : higher concentration produces faster rate. Presence of catalysts : inorganic catalysts or organic catalysts (enzymes) increase reaction rate.

14 Electrolytes = compounds that release ions when dissolved in water (e.g. NaCl + water Na + + Cl - ) Acids = electrolytes that release H + (e.g. H 2 CO 3 H + + HCO 3- ) Bases = electrolytes that release anions that can combine with H + (e.g. NaOH Na + + OH - ) Salts = substances formed by the reaction between an acid and a base (e.g. HCl + NaOH H 2 O + NaCl )

15 PH measurement of H + concentration in a solution - More H + = lower PH = more acidic - Less H + = higher ph = less acidic -Ph scale is form 0 to 14, where the midpoint (ph 7.0) is neutral. From ph 0 to 6.9, it is acid ; while from ph 7.1 to 14 is base.

16 PH Scale Figure 2.9

17 Organic substances = chemicals that contain C and H (e.g. Carbohydrates or Protein, Fat, and nucleic acid) Inorganic substances = chemicals that do not contain C and H (e.g. table salt or NaCl, carbon dioxides or CO 2, ammonia or NH 3 ) (Most inorganic substances are small, electrolytes and usually use ionic bonding, and most organic substances are large, non electrolytes, and usually use covalent bonding ).

18 An Organic Compound (cholestrol)

19 Protein Figure 2.3

20 Carbohydrate

21 Nucleic Acid

22 Solutions and concentration When a substance is dissolved in a liquid (ex. water), a solution is formed. The substance that is dissolved is the solute and the liquid in which the dissolution occurred is the solvent. Concentration : The measure of dissolution of a particular solute in a given volume of solvent. it is measured in molarity. Molarity : The number of solute molecule per unit volume of solution. Buffer : A substance that can react with an acid or a base and thus resist a change in PH.

23 Tonicity the ability of a solution to change the tone or shape of cells by changing their internal H 2 O volume. - Hypertonic : solutions with higher osmotic pressure. cells in a Hypertonic solution lose H 2 O and shrink. - Hypotonic : solution with a lower osmotic pressure cells in hyportonic solution gain H 2 O and swell. - Isotonic : same tonicity. cell in isotonic solutions neither gain, nor lose H 2 O.

24 The effect of solutions of varying tonicities on red blood cell

25 Enzymes 1.Are always made of globular proteins. 2.Can promote the rate of chemical reactions by billions of times. 3.Can lower the activation energy energy necessary to start a reaction resulting in a conservation of energy.

26 4. Are usually reusable or recycled. 5. Are always very specific using its active site, each enzyme is designed to bind to only one specific substance, the substrate and rapidly transforms the substrate into a product. 6. Many enzymes would not achieve their optimum efficiency unless they are bound to a cofactor (i.e. ions, metals) or to a coenzyme (organic cofactors such as vitamins ). 7. Most enzymes' names end with "ase (ex. Dnase, Sucrase)

27 Mechanism of Enzyme Action Active site Amino acids 1 Enzyme (E) Substrates (s) H 2 0 Enzymesubstrate complex (E S) Free enzyme (E) 2 3 Peptide bond Internal rearrangements leading to catalysis Dipeptide product (P) Figure 2.20

28 Factors that affect enzyme activity Since all enzymes are made of globular proteins, and proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, enzymes can be affected or denatured very easily. Factors that could affect or denature enzymes include heat, ration, electricity, certain chemical substances, and extreme ph.

29 METABOLISM Anabolic metabolism Uses dehydration synthesis reaction to build large molecules from small molecules. Each reaction releases a water molecule and requires energy input Example monosaccharide + energy polysaccharide + water amino acids + energy protein + water. Synthesis and Hydrolysis of Sucrose :

30 Catabolic metabolism Uses hydrolysis (or decomposition) reaction to break up large molecules into smaller molecules. Each reaction requires a water molecule and releases energy. Example -- triglyceride + water fatty acids + energy

31 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) High- energy molecule that is derived from the nucleotide, adenine. Contains 3 phosphate groups (PO 4 ) and high-energy chemical bonds that each time the bonds are broken, a large amount of energy is generated. Energy is released by ATP is broken down by hydrolysis reaction ATP + water ADP + PO 4 + energy [ADP = adenosine diphosphate ] ADP + water AMP + PO 4 + energy [AMP = adenosine monophosphate ]

32 ATP

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