When she and he becomes it: The use of grammatical gender in the Greek of the Armenians of Cyprus. Chryso Hadjidemetriou University of Sheffield

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1 When she and he becomes it: The use of grammatical gender in the Greek of the Armenians of Cyprus Chryso Hadjidemetriou University of Sheffield

2 Outline Grammatical Gender Recordings with Cypriot-Armenians and non- Cypriot-Armenians to examine the use of grammatical gender in Cypriot-Greek Results

3 The present study One feature characterising the Greek of the Armenians is the deviant use of grammatical gender in Cypriot-Greek. Two groups of adult speakers: Cypriot-Armenians (CyAs): Armenians born in Cyprus or who arrived in Cyprus as infants or at around the age of 1-2. Non-Cypriot Armenians (non-cyas): Armenians not born in Cyprus; that is, Armenians who arrived in Cyprus when they were 9 to 10 years old, or as teenagers or as adults.

4 The Armenians of Cyprus During Ottoman occupation of Cyprus ( CE): Armenians Most Armenians arrived between 1920 and 1922 The Armenian families who lived in Cyprus before the arrival of the refugees in the 20th century were called Deghatsi (native), as opposed to the Armenians arriving later who became known as Kaghtagan (refugee) (1997: 51) There are about 2,500 Armenians living in Cyprus, in addition to about 500 non-cypriot Armenians (later arrivals).

5 Grammatical gender in Armenian (or the lack of it) Gender in Armenian is unmarked, i.e. there is no expressed grammatical distinction for masculine, feminine or neuter gender as in the case of many European languages (Sakayan 2000: 54). In the third person singular, the Armenian personal pronoun does not express gender either (as in English with he/she/it) (ibid). There is only one nominal suffix uhi, which forms the feminine counterparts of masculine nouns indicating persons (e.g. male pupil vs. female pupil, or male student vs. female student).

6 Grammatical gender in Greek Three gender-system, masculine, feminine and neuter, a typical gender system found in many Indo-European languages Nouns inflect for gender, number and case. Knowledge of the gender of a particular noun is important, in order to be able to decline it correctly and attach the appropriate article or modify it with an adjective in the correct grammatical gender (Holton et al. 1994: 48). Adjectives can have separate forms for each gender, though not all do. Determiners, numbers and articles also inflect for gender to agree with the noun they are modifying (Holton et al. 1994: 94). In addition to these word-classes, pronouns also agree in grammatical gender with their antecedent and pronominal clitic cross-indexing on the verb of a nonsubject nominal argument depends on the gender of the nominal argument (e.g. ton for masculine direct objects, tin for feminine ones, and to for neuter) (Joseph and Philippaki-Warburton 1987: 153).

7 Grammatical gender in Greek In addition to these word-classes, pronouns also agree in grammatical gender with their antecedent and pronominal clitic cross-indexing on the verb of a nonsubject nominal argument depends on the gender of the nominal argument (e.g. ton for masculine direct objects, tin for feminine ones, and to for neuter) (Joseph and Philippaki-Warburton 1987: 153). The gender of nouns and of the lexical items of other word-classes modifying the nouns is reflected in the endings of these lexical items (Joseph and Philippaki-Warburton 1987: 245). Most of the time it is difficult to locate gender as being part of the stem or the inflectional affix (ibid: 523). Additionally, case markings and gender markings are intertwined, thus, nouns belonging in the same inflection class may maintain different gender values (ibid: 534).

8 Results 1. the location of gender deviations in 100 noun phrases counted 2. the type of gender deviation, for example: a feminine article appearing in neuter gender (F N), or a masculine noun appearing in neuter gender (M N) 3. lexical items which could not be categorised by type of gender deviation because their endings did not facilitate a grammatical gender categorisation. For instance, consider the following noun which is used by a non-cya: *polikatikun instead of polikatikia-fem (block of flats). The form of the noun used by the non-cya cannot be categorised based on its ending. These examples were extremely uncommon.

9 Type A: Modifiers disagree in gender with the head noun of the noun phrase "#$%&#"'()*'%+,%-.*%/#$*01203% 4"##*)-%5"#$% "#$ %&'()*+$,-./01./ 2%&'./01./3(4*5$,- "#$%&'(%& "6$ "17'&89&(4*5$,-./01./ 2"17'&89&./01./3()*+$,- )(*$#+,#*-#,./$(0

10 Type A: Modifiers disagree in gender with the head noun of the noun phrase "#$%&#"'()*'%+,%-.*%/#$*01203% 4"##*)-%5"#$% ":$ 1(-*/&$-/&$(*+#-(+/+$. "A$ B 2</8@3()C5$)*+$,-B(D*4$"EF G'&%.8H' 2</8@3()C5$4*5$,-2</'G'&%.8H'3( )C5$4*5$,- 2&+.3$#-%+4$

11 Type B: Noun phrases in the wrong gender with incorrect head noun morphology "#$%&#"'()*'%+,%-.*%/#$*01203% 4"##*)-%5"#$% I#$ 2</'.97'J3()*+$)C5$,- 2</'.97'J3(4*5$)C5$,- 2&$%,*$5

12 Self-initiated self-repairs and gender deviations "##$%&'($)*#+,$-*&'#%$.&*% /0%%$(#10%2 "# $ %&'()#*++#,-./010/23&4#,-560&'()#*++#,-560&7(8#*++#,- 9/:19/&7(8#*++#,- "#$%$&'()#*%)#+#$%$,

13 Gender assignment and/or agreement remain problematic for learners at all levels (Dewaele and Véronique 2001: 275)

14 Thank you Special thanks to The Learned Societies Fund of the University of Sheffield

15 References Aikhenvald, A. Y. (2003). Classifiers: A typology of noun categorization devices. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bartning, R. (2000). Gender agreement in L2 French: Pre-advanced vs advanced learners. In Studia Linguistica 54 (2): Beardsmore, H. B. (1971). A gender problem in a language contact situation. In Lingua 27: Dewaele, J. M. and Véronique, D. (2001). Gender assignment and gender agreement in advanced French interlanguage: a cross-sectional study. In Bilingualism: Language and cognition 4 (3): Delisle, H. H. (1985). The acquisition of gender by American students of German. In The Modern Language Journal 69: Corbett, G. (1991). Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Franceschina, F. (2001). Grammatical gender in native and non-native Spanish grammars. In D. Arnold, F. Franceschina and E. Thomas (eds.) (2001), Essex Graduate Student Papers in Language and Linguistics. Volume 3. Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex, Available online: linguistics/pgr/egspll/volume3 Franceschina, F. (2003). The nature of grammatical representations in mature L2 grammars: The case of Spanish grammatical gender. PhD Thesis: University of Essex. Ellis, R. (1994) The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hadjidemetriou, C. (2001). Self-Initiated Self-Repairs and Syntax-for-Interaction: Evidence from Greek Conversation. MA Thesis, University of Essex, UK. Hadjidemetriou, C. (2009) The consequences of language contact: Armenian and Maronite Arabic in contact with Cypriot Greek. Unpublished PhD Thesis: University of Essex, UK. Holton, D., Mackridge, P. and I. Philippaki-Warburton. (1997). Greek: A comprehensive grammar of the modern language. London and New York: Routledge.

16 References Lyons, C. (1999) Definiteness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oliphant, K. (1997). Acquisition of grammatical gender in Italian as a foreign language. PhD Thesis, University of Hawai i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center. Available online: Roca, I. (1989). The organisation of grammatical gender. In Transactions of the Philological Society 7, 1: Roca, I. (2000). On the meaning of gender. In Hispanic Research Journal 1 (2): Sakayan, D. (2000). Modern Western Armenian for the English-speaking world: A contrastive approach. Montreal: Arod Books. Seaman, D. P. (1972) Modern Greek and American English in contact. The Hague: Mouton. Sigler, M. (1997) Specificity and agreement in Standard Western Armenian. Doctoral Dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Silva-Corvalán, C. (1990) Current issues in studies of language contact. Hispania 73: Trudgill, P. (2002). Sociolinguistic variation and change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Tsimpli, I. M. (2003). I kataktisi tou genous stin elliniki os defteri glossa. [The acquisition of gender in Greek as a second language]. In A. Anastasiadi-Simeonidi, A. Ralli and D. Chila-Markopoulou (eds.) (2003), Genos. [Gender]. Athens: Publications Pataki: Vaux, B. and Sigler, M. (2000) Armenian Syntax. Manuscript.

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