Child Learning and Development Theories

Transcription

1 Child Learning and Development Theories Young Learners Learning and language acquisition theories: Three major concepts. Behaviorism. In the 1940s and 50s, behaviourism was very influential, especially in the US. Behaviourists claim that language is learned through imitation, practice, feedback on success and habit formation (Lightbown and Spada 1999:9). A child will, then, imitate what they hear in their environment, repeat it, and, if the expected response occurs, or they are praised for what they have said or done, they understand that they have been successful. This feedback from their environment continues until they have formed habits of language use. The amount and consistency of feedback, then, will affect language learning. The most widely known theorist is Pavlov, who conducted experiments with his famous dogs, which he trained to salivate (response) at the sound of a bell (stimulus), which is known as classical conditioning. These theories were transferred to human behaviour, and it was suggested that all human behaviour, including language, can be explained in terms of stimulus-response connections. Skinner further emphasized reinforcement and the notion of operants, or the range of behaviours that organisms performed or were capable of performing (Williams and Burden 1997:9). This became operant conditioning, or that an individual will respond to a stimulus by behaving in a certain way. If this behaviour is rewarded (i.e. reinforced) then the behaviour will reoccur, or vice versa. In language teaching, then, language can be seen as a behaviour, which can be taught as such. Methods such as audiolingualism arose from this theory. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) also suggests that there are similarities between first and foreign language, and learners will easily acquire such structures. Although certain aspects of learning can obviously be slotted into behaviouristic theories, and it has had a great influence on management and psychology, Ausubel s meaningful learning theory is worth considering here. This theory suggests that meaningful learning process involves relation of new events to existing cognitive concepts and propositions, this is also known as cognitive pegging. Innatism. Chomsky was one of the most famous and vociferous opponents of behaviourism in the field of language acquisition. He based his theory on the hypothesis that children acquire language 1

2 thorough their environment, and that all human beings have an in-born ability to acquire language, in an incredibly short time, despite it having a hugely complex abstract nature. It is sometimes known as nativist, which asserts that language acquisition is innately determined, that we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. (Brown 2000:24). Chomsky talked about a little black box, or Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which accounted for the generativity, abstractness and creativity of children s language. One of the major concepts of innatism is that language development is systematic, so that at any one point of development, language is a legitimate system in its own right, rather than children making fewer and fewer mistakes until they can speak the native language perfectly. This is as the child forms and tests hypotheses of language use. Donaldson talks about the wug experiment. (one wug, two wugs, leads to the realization that s is the plural marker.) Also related to this is Lenneberg s Critical period hypothesis, which suggests the brain is predisposed to language learning and that developmental changes in the brain affect the nature of learning. This was clarified by biological theories of hemispheric lateralisation, which means that over time, as children develop, functions are assigned to different areas of the brain; including language acquisition, meaning the young child s brain has plasticity, enabling them to acquire language (more than one) easily and develop native-like pronunciation. Most said that lateralisation occurs at puberty, but Krashen has evidence it occurs at 5 years old. A weak form of this theory is known as the sensitive period hypothesis. Krashen s five main hypotheses are also based on innatist theories: The acquisition-learning hypothesis there are two ways of second language internalization by acquiring (informal) and learning (formal). Fluency in language in second language performance is due to what we have acquired, not what we have learned (in Brown 2000:278) and that these two systems are mutually exclusive: what is learned cannot become acquired and vice versa. The monitor hypothesis that which is learned can act as a monitor on that acquired. The Natural Order Hypothesis Language rules are learned in a predictable, common order. The input hypothesis for acquisition to occur, input must be at and slightly above the learner s competence/level of understanding. (input [I] +1) The affective filter hypothesis language cannot be acquired in high anxiety, defensive environments. Terrell s Natural approach is based around innatist theories and emphasises the need for production to be delayed until speech has emerged, or to allow a silent period. 2

3 Interactionism. Interactionists claim that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the uniquely human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Childdirected speech, modified is emphasized. Piaget traced development of cognitive understanding of children of, for example object permanence (is it still there even if it s covered?), stability of quantities (if you spread it out, is it still the same amount). The interaction is, then, between the child and objects in its environment. Vygotsky, however, placed a much larger emphasis on social interaction, and claimed that language develops entirely from it. He believed that adults help children to reach higher levels of understanding and knowledge by providing them with a kind of climbing frame (scaffold) to assist them in moving from what they know/understand to something higher (Zone of Proximal Development ZPD). Feuerstein s Mediation Theory, states that learning is shaped by the intervention of significant adults (mediators). The mediators intervene by selecting and organising stimuli they consider most appropriate in promoting learning. Three main points of the theory are: Significance information has significance, both personal and cultural. Through this, culture is transmitted through generations. Purpose beyond the here and now (transcendence) emphasises that learning should be broad and not just focus solely on the one thing being taught Shared intention and negotiation of meaning In arriving at shared intention, child and mediator must work on the negotiation of meaning by making modifications of input with the ultimate aim of autonomy. Communicative approaches, especially Task Based Learning adhere to interactionist views of learning. A useful quote might be: One way to reconcile the behaviourist, innatist and interactionist theories is to see that each my help to explain a different aspect of children s language development. Behaviourist ( ) explanations may explain the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical morphemes. Innatist explanations seem most plausible in explaining the acquisition of complex grammar. Interactionist explanations may be useful for understanding how children relate form and meaning in language, how they interact in conversations and how they learn to use language appropriately. (Lightbown and Spada 1999:26) 3

4 Others, including Hughes (2001:17) suggest the reconstruction of some situations occurring in L1 acquisition by the use of contextualised language which relates directly to the learner and is linked to immediate and visible action, use of non-verbal communication tools and language which is meaningfully repetitive on a daily basis, large in quantity and occurring over a period of time. References and suggested further reading. Brewster, J., Ellis, G. and Girard, D. (1992) The Primary English Teacher s Guide. London: Penguin Brown, H.D., (2000) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Longman. (fourth edition) Brumfit, C., Moon, J., and Tongue, R., (eds.) Teaching English to Children From Practice to Principle. London: Longman. Cameron, L. (2001) Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Donaldson, M. (1978) Children s Minds. Glasgow: Fontana Press. Ellis, R., (1985) Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R., (1985) Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fisher, R. (1990) Teaching Children to Think. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. Fisher, R. (1995) Teaching Children to Learn. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes. Hedge, T. (2000) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hughes, A. (2001) The Teaching of Language to Young Learners: Linking Understanding and Principles with Practice. In Raya, M., Faber, J.P., Gewehr, W and Peck, A.J. (eds.) Effective Foreign Language Teaching at the Primary Level. (pp ) Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Lightbown, P.M. and Spada, N., (1999) How Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (second edition.) Maybin, J., Mercer, N. and Stierer, B. (1992) Scaffolding Learning in the Classroom. In Norman, K. (ed.) Thinking Voices (pp ) London: Hodder & Stoughton. Nunan, D., (1998) Language Teaching Methodology. Harlow: Longman. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society. Cole, M., John-Steiner, V., Scribner, S. and Souberman, E. (eds.) London: Harvard University Press. Wells, G. (1986) The Meaning Makers. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Williams, M. and Burden, R.L. (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wood, D. (1988) How Children Think and Learn. Oxford: Blackwell. 4

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