Topic II: The Militarization of The Arctic. Chair: Sasha Boutilier

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1 Topic II: The Militarization of The Arctic Chair: Sasha Boutilier NorthernIllinoisModelUnitedNations 2012

2 Table of Contents The Arctic Region 2 Territorial Claims and Militarization 3 UN Convention on the Laws of the Sea 3 Arctic Militarization 3 Current Situation 4 Possible Solutions 4

3 The militarization of the Arctic is an issue of both regional and international importance. It may seem as if Arctic issues should only concern the countries that border upon it, but in fact, the fate of the Arctic concerns many nations. The Arctic is home to significant resources and can now serve as an important passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans with the advent of global warming and improved icebreaking technology. Some key issues to consider pertaining to this topic are whether the Arctic should be international property or national property, how the resources of the Arctic should be managed, and how military activities in the Arctic should be regulated. The Arctic Region The Arctic is the area surrounding the North Pole. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Russia, Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. Geographically, the Arctic is defined as the area north of the Arctic Circle (66 33'N). The Arctic Circle does not have a geographical meaning as it does not correspond to any physical features of the terrain; rather, the Arctic Circle is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Respectively, these are the periods where the sun does not set or does not rise. Due to the severe climate, the Arctic is largely uninhabited and all relatively major cities are at the southern edges of the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region was first settled by the Eskimos and other cultures of Mongolic descent. European exploration in the Arctic was largely motivated by the hopes of discovering the Northern Passage that would allow ships to travel over North America or Eurasia between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Efforts to discover this passage in the 15th and 16th century were met with little success, causing interest in the Arctic to wane. By the 19th century, some new explorers endeavored to find the passage. Sadly, the first expedition led by Sir John Franklin disappeared and many of the following missions were dedicated to trying to find the first party. The Northeast Passage over Eurasia was first completely navigated in 1878 by Nils A. E. Nordenskjold. Twenty-five years later, in 1903 Roald Amundsen would be the first to successfully navigate the Northwest Passage over North America. These passages were only viable routes for approximately two months each year due to the expansion and contraction of the polar ice caps. During and after World War II further exploration and research was conducted in the Arctic. In 1969, The Northwest passage was first successfully navigated by a commercial ship to test whether this passage would be a feasible option. The voyage was successful, however the Northwest Passage has never been used as a regular commercial route. Currently, all of the Arctic has been explored and mapped. As such,

4 the focus of research in the Arctic has shifted to global warming and its effects on the polar ice caps. Territorial Claims and Militarization In the early 20th century, the Arctic powers based their claims in the Arctic off the sector principle. The sector principle meant that each country could lay claim to the territory enclosed within lines drawn from the Arctic Circle to the Eastern and Western boundaries of the country. There were many conflicts concerning sovereignty over parts of the Arctic Sea during the 1920's. Both Canada and Russia laid claim to the territory north of their borders all the way to the North Pole. Arctic affairs gained a new, sinister flavor following World War II. As East-West tensions grew, the strategic and military aspects of the Arctic become crucial. The Arctic was extremely important during the Cold War because the shortest distance between the US and the Soviet Union was over the Arctic. As the United States did not have much territory in the Arctic it had to rely on treaties and agreements with other Arctic powers to protect this region. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea In 1994, the United Nations ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) after over two decades of legislation. Possibly the most significant clause in UNCLOS allowed countries possessing coastal borders to claim the sea and sea bed up to 200 nautical miles from their coast line as an exclusive economic zone and sovereign territory. Furthermore, UNCLOS permits the extension of this territory depending upon the extension of the continental land mass. Currently, UNCLOS has been ratified by 158 nations. The US has not ratified UNCLOS. Arctic Militarization Prior to World War II, there was no military activity in the Arctic. However, during WWII there were several minor battles there and it served as an important convoy route between the UK and the USSR. Military activity in the Arctic really increased most dramatically following WWII. There were three main reasons for this increase in military activity. The first cause of this increase was the Cold War. The second cause was the development meant of nuclear weapons and long-range delivery mechanisms. The third cause is that the Arctic was the shortest distance between the USA and the USSR. By the 1980's, both the USA and Russia had developed their ballistic missile systems to the point that from a submarine in the Arctic, virtually all strategic targets in the Northern hemisphere were in range a of a nuclear strike. This led to an increased

5 emphasis on sea and air defense systems in the region. The USA in particular built many radar stations in the Arctic with the co-operation of Canada and Iceland. After the end of the Cold War, most Arctic powers moved their forces away from the Arctic. However, in recent years the Arctic has been re-emerging as an important strategic and economic area. Current Situation The United States Geological Survey found in 2008 that, "The Arctic accounts for about 13 percent of the undiscovered oil, 30 percent of the undiscovered natural gas, and 20 percent of the undiscovered natural gas liquids in the world. i " Additionally the Arctic also contains significant deposits of gold, silver, copper, iron, platinum, lead, tin, nickel, diamonds, zinc, and manganese. As one might imagine, these economic resources make the Arctic a highly desirable zone for economic expansion. The issue of territorial claims over the Arctic gained significant media attention in 2007, when a Russian submarine planted a Russian flag in the North Pole. This act was symbolic of a significant shift in policy towards the Arctic, which for most of the twentieth century had been generally recognized as international waters. Both Russia and Norway have submitted territorial claims to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. Russia's claims are still contested and under investigation, but Norway's claims to over 235,000 sq. km of territory were recognized. Some contested areas at the moment are the sea border between Alaska and Canada, and the East Barents Basin, between Russia and Norway. Russia has been increasing Arctic patrols and strengthening its Arctic forces since This increased military presence has been thought to be a Russian attempt to gain more influence and leverage in territorial disputes in the Arctic. The United States is also increasing its presence in the region and is planning to establish a Joint Task Force-Arctic Region Command and an Arctic Coast Guard Forum. Canada has also increased its Arctic presence, building new patrol ships, new military bases, and a port. Possible Solutions ARCTIC TREATY: One possible solution to the problems facing the Arctic would be a Treaty similar to the Antarctic Treaty that would replace UNCLOS as the main document concerning Arctic territorial claims. Most countries that border the Arctic are opposed to this idea however. RESTRICTIONS ON MILITARY ACTIVITIES: If a treaty on the Arctic is not viable restrictions on military activities in the Arctic could still be considered. Such an agreement could include co-operative surveillance to ensure that the terms of such an agreement are followed. An agreement on Arms Limitation should include both the major Arctic powers and other countries. Such an

6 agreement would also have to be careful to address the concerns of major Arctic powers to ensure their co-operation. i

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