AP2404 Exam 2 Review

Transcription

1 AP2404 Exam 2 Review Compare and contrast the structure of arteries and veins and arterioles and venules. List the types of arteries and veins. Correlate the anatomical structure of each type of blood vessel with its function. Define anastomosis and explain the significance of anastomoses, such as the Circle of Willis. Identify the major arteries and veins. Describe the systemic and pulmonary circuits and discuss the functions of each. State and interpret the equation that relates blood flow to pressure and resistance. List the local, hormonal and neuronal factors that affect peripheral resistance and explain the importance of each. Interpret relevant graphs to explain the relationships between vessel diameter, cross- sectional area, blood pressure, and blood velocity.

2 Describe how net filtration pressure across the capillary wall determines movement of fluid across the capillary wall. Discuss how muscular compression and the respiratory pump aid venous return. Predict factors or situations affecting the cardiovascular system that could disrupt homeostasis. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the cardiovascular system could not maintain homeostasis. Describe the major functions of the respiratory system. Identify the structure of nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, pleural membranes, pulmonary blood vessels and nerves, thoracic and pleural cavities, and diaphragm. For each of the following, describe the gross anatomical features - nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, pleural membranes, pulmonary blood vessels and nerves, thoracic and pleural cavities, and diaphragm. For each of the following, describe the microscopic anatomy of each structure - respiratory (nasal) mucosa, the layers of the tracheal wall, the bronchi and bronchioles, the three cell types found in alveoli, and the respiratory membrane. Explain how each of the following affect pulmonary ventilation - bronchiolar smooth muscle contractions, lung and thoracic wall compliance and recoil, and pulmonary surfactant and alveolar surface tension.

3 Define, identify, and determine values for the respiratory volumes (IRV, TV, ERV, and RV) and the respiratory capacities (IC, FRC, VC, and TLC). Define and calculate values for minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation. Define anatomical dead space and explain the effect of anatomical dead space on alveolar ventilation and on the composition of alveolar and expired air. State Daltons Law and Henrys Law, and relate both laws to the events of external and internal respiration and to the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma. With respect to internal respiration, describe oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration gradients and net gas movements. With respect to the oxygenhemoglobin saturation curve, list factors that shift the curve down and to the right, and explain how this results in increased oxygen delivery to the tissues. With respect to carbon dioxide transport, describe the ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in blood and discuss the relative importance of each to total carbon dioxide transport. With respect to carbon dioxide transport, state the reversible chemical equation for the reaction of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid and then to hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion. Describe the locations and functions of the brainstem respiratory centers. Compare and contrast the central and peripheral chemoreceptors.

4 Explain how the respiratory system relates to other body systems to maintain homeostasis. Predict factors or situations affecting the respiratory system that could disrupt homeostasis. Describe the major functions of the urinary system. Describe the external structure of the kidney, including its location, support structures and covering with respect to gross anatomy of the urinary tract. Identify, and describe the structure and location of, the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra with respect to gross anatomy of the urinary tract. Trace the path of blood through the kidney. Identify the major structures and subdivisions of the renal corpuscles, renal tubules and renal capillaries in the nephron and collecting system. Describe the histological structure of the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct of the kidney. Trace the path of filtrate/urine from the renal corpuscle to the urethral opening. Describe the structure of the filtration membrane. Predict specific factors that will increase or decrease glomerular filtration rate (GFR).

5 With respect to reabsorption, list specific transport mechanisms occurring in different parts of the nephron, including active transport, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, passive electrochemical gradients, receptor mediated endocytosis, and transcytosis. With respect to reabsorption, list the different membrane proteins of the nephron, including aquaporins, channels, transporters, and ATPase pumps. Describe how and where water, organic compounds, and ions are reabsorbed in the nephron. With respect to reabsorption, explain the role of the loop of Henle, the vasa recta, and the countercurrent multiplication mechanism in the concentration of urine. List the location(s) in the nephron where tubular secretion occurs. Describe how each of the following functions in the extrinsic control of GFR- reninangiotensin mechanism, natriuretic peptides, and sympathetic adrenergic activity. Describe how each of the following works to regulate reabsorption and secretion, so as to affect urine volume and composition- reninangiotensin system, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and natriuretic peptides. Predict factors or situations affecting the urinary system that could disrupt homeostasis. Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the urinary system could not maintain homeostasis. Anatomy and functional roles of the different types of blood vessels.

6 Pattern of blood circulation throughout the body, including systemic, pulmonary, coronary, hepatic portal, and fetal circulations. Blood pressure and its functional interrelationships with cardiac output, peripheral resistance, and hemodynamics. Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders. General functions of the respiratory system. Gross and microscopic anatomy of the respiratory tract and related organs. Mechanisms of pulmonary ventilation. Pulmonary air volumes and capacities. Mechanisms of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. Mechanisms of gas transport in the blood. Control of pulmonary ventilation. Application of homeostatic mechanisms. Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders. General functions of the urinary system. Gross and microscopic anatomy of the urinary tract, including detailed histology of the nephron.

7 Functional process of urine formation, including filtration reabsorption, and secretion. Factors regulating and altering urine volume and composition, including the renin- angiotensin system and the roles of aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and the natriuretic peptides. Predictions related to homeostatic imbalance, including disease states and disorders.