II. Genetics and Evolution
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1 a. Basic Genetics Mendel s Laws of Inheritance Organisms pass their characteristics from generation to generation. This process is known as inheritance. Mendel established the laws of inheritance, based on his study of the inheritance of characteristics of garden peas through a series of breeding experiments. Law of segregation (Mendel s first law) and law of independent assortment (Mendel s second law) help explain monohybrid and dihybrid inheritances. Like father, like son. Is this statement correct? Why? How did Mendel carry out breeding experiments to study the inheritance of a pair of contrasting characters in garden peas? What were the results? What were the advantages of using garden peas in Mendel s study? How were Mendel s experimental results on monohybrid inheritance interpreted? What is Mendel s first law of inheritance? What is meant by the Law of Segregation? How did Mendel carry out experiments to study the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters in garden peas? What results did he obtain? How were Mendel s experimental results on dihybrid inheritance interpreted? What is Mendel s second law of inheritance? What is meant by the law of independent assortment? 1
2 Inheritance in Humans Gene is the basic unit of heredity. It carries information about a heritable trait. It exists in different forms called alleles, which specify different versions of the same trait. In the case of multiple alleles, there are more than two alleles controlling several versions of the trait, e.g. ABO blood group in Humans. Sex chromosomes determine the sex of humans. In female body cells, each has two X chromosomes (XX). In male body cells, each has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY). Genes located in sex chromosomes are called sex-linked genes. Due to the absence of the corresponding allele in the Y chromosome, the characteristic carried by the allele in the X chromosomes will be expressed. A boy of blood group O suspected that he was not the son of his parents as both of them were of blood group A. How can we explain to him about such probability? Why does colour blindness occur more commonly in males than in females? Which parent s chromosome determines the sex of a baby? What should be considered when blood is transfused from one person to another? Explain your answer. How are the blood groups in humans determined? Explain how three allelic forms of a gene make up four different blood groups. How is sex determined in humans? What is meant by sex linkage? Name some common sexlinked traits in humans. How does sex linkage affect the frequency of occurrence of a trait in different sexes? 2
3 Pedigree Analysis Inheritance in humans can be studied by pedigree analysis. How can we possibly work out the genotypes of individuals in a family? Why do some inherited diseases occur more commonly in males than in females? Variations in Characteristics Due to the differences in hereditary information, mutations and environmental factors, there are variations in characteristics among individuals of the same species. Some variations are continuous and some are discontinuous. In sexual reproduction, independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing-over between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, and random fertilisation leads to variations in offspring. Activity Observe and analyse variations in humans (e.g. height variation and tongue rolling). What is variation in a species? What is the difference between continuous and discontinuous variation? Give some examples of each type of variations. What are the causes of genetic variation? How do environmental factors contribute to variations? 3
4 b. Molecular Genetics Chromosomes, Genes and Nucleic Acids Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis A chromosome consists of a very long DNA helix and proteins. There are thousands of genes on each chromosome. A gene is a short length of DNA. The specific sequence of nucleotides in a gene determines the order in which amino acids are linked together to form proteins, which in turn control the metabolism and characteristics of organisms. Genes are expressed through protein synthesis, which involves transcription and translation. Watson and Crick were awarded the Nobel s prize in Physiology or Medicine in Do you know about their achievement? What is the significance of their discovery? What is the basic structure of a nucleotide? What are the different types of nucleotides found in DNA and RNA respectively? How do you extract DNA from living tissues? What is the structural relationship among chromosomes, genes and nucleic acids? What is meant by genetic code? What are the characteristics of genetic code? How are proteins synthesised in cells? Describe the processes involved and state the sites where they take place. What is the role of different RNA molecules in protein synthesis? Mutation Mutations are changes in genetic materials, which may occur spontaneously or being induced by radiation and chemicals. Mutations may affect the metabolism and characteristics of organisms. There are two types of mutation: chromosome mutation and gene mutation. 4
5 What is the difference between gene mutation and chromosome mutation? How may gene mutation affect the synthesis of proteins? What are the possible causes of mutations? Give some examples of human disorders that are caused by gene or chromosome mutations. Name some common mutagens. Applied Genetics Recombinant DNA technology combines DNA fragments from different sources together. The DNA molecules are cut by specific restriction enzymes, and DNA fragments are joined together by DNA ligase to form the recombinant DNA. DNA fingerprinting can be used to identify individuals in parentage test and forensic science. Human Genome Project was completed by the joint effort of scientists, which provides better understanding of human genes and genetics. How to confirm the relationship of a father and a son using scientific method? How do we know the identity of a dead body if it was seriously damaged? Why did the Human Genome Project need the joint effort of so many scientists from different countries? Activities Perform practical work to extract DNA from living tissues, and to separate DNA fragments by gel-electrophoresis. 5
6 What is recombinant DNA technology? What are the applications of recombinant DNA technology in our daily lives? What is DNA fingerprinting and what is its application? What is the Human Genome Project (HGP)? What are the contributions and limitations of the data obtained from the HGP? c. Biodiversity and Evolution Diversity of Life Forms and Classification of Organisms There are various life forms on the Earth. Biologists develop classification systems to categorise similar organisms into groups to facilitate the study of organisms and help explain the evolutionary relationships among organisms. The classification systems of organisms undergo a series of development and subject to change with the appearance of new evidence. The modern classification of organisms is based on the phylogenetic relationships of organisms. The three-domain and six-kingdom system proposed by Carl Woese is currently the most widely accepted classification system. This classification system emphasises strongly on the phylogenetic relationships among organisms. Organisms are classified into six kingdoms (Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia), which are incorporated within the three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Why is mule not regarded as a species? What are the limitations of the two-kingdom classification system? Why have the classification systems been changed from time to time? Why is the three-domain-six-kingdom system proposed by Carl Woese more widely accepted by scientists, than the five-kingdom classification system? 6
7 Activities Conduct a mini-research on the different life forms found in your school campus. Show students photographs of some organisms. Ask them to classify these organisms into groups according to their external features. What are the limitations of classifying organisms according to their external features? How are biodiversity, evolution and genetic variation related to each other? Why is there a need for classification of organisms? What kind of relationship among organisms can be shown in the three-domain-sixkingdom classification system? How are organisms placed into the three-domain-six-kingdom classification system? How is an organism named under the binomial nomenclature? Origins of Life and Evolution The origin of life remains controversial. There are various scientific explanations for the origins of life. Evolution takes place through the process of natural selection. Environmental conditions exert selective pressure on organisms and determine the fitness of organisms. Organisms with advantageous variations can survive and reproduce more offspring. Due to natural selection and isolation, groups of population may become new species over a very long period of time. Which comes first: Egg or Chicken? Do different explanations for the origins of life give answer to this question? Why are there more and more drug-resistant bacteria? Is there any other evidence for evolution apart from the fossil record? What is meant by living fossil? Give examples of some common living fossils. 7
8 Activities Conduct a research on using fossil record as an evidence of evolution. What are the limitations of the fossil record? Show students with pictures of human evolution history. Ask them to discuss and share their viewpoints on human evolution based on evidence. What are the scientific explanations for the origins of life? What are the evidences of evolution? What are the limitations of using fossil records as an evidence of evolution? What is natural selection? How do genetic variation and environmental pressure play a role in the mechanism of evolution? Give examples of natural selection in action. What is meant by speciation? How do genetic variation and isolation play a role in speciation? 8
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