PROTECTED AREAS (PAs)
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1 PROTECTED AREAS (PAs)
2 Protected area = any area of land or sea managed for the in situ protection and persistence of biodiversity and other natural processes through constraints on incompatible land uses. Protected areas can be thought of as patches in a greater conservation quilt. Reserve System = system of protected areas. The quilt
3 Importance of Protected Areas Protect Biodiversity; often serve as conservation surrogates for regional biodiversity with attempts to capture as much and as important components of biodiversity, ecosystem function, as possible. Sometimes these are the last refuge(s) of T/E species. Protect Human Livelihoods; water quality and flood control, food supplies, culture, indigenous peoples Protect Human Sanity; Contact w/ nature, recreation Economic; PAs serve as sources of animal and plant resources for harvest activities usually outside protected boundary Reference Systems to compare more disturbed areas with
4 World Database on Protected Areas Interactive Maps of Protected Areas
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7 Protected Areas in KY ~94% of KY is private land and only about 6% of KY is public land. State Nature Preserves and Wilderness Areas (Beaver Creek, Clifty) have highest level of protection, followed by National Parks such as Mammoth Cave and Cumberland Gap
8 Creating New Protected Areas Creation Mechanisms: 1) Governments (most important and prolific, but has problem of creating paper parks or parks in name only w/ little real protection of nature. 2) NGOs (non-governmental organizations), such as The Nature Conservancy, or private individuals (e.g. Ted Turner s conservation oriented ranches) 3) Indigenous Peoples 4) Creation of Biological Field Stations (university led; goals = biodiversity protection + research)
9 Typical Protected Areas in the U.S. Federal Wilderness Areas National Parks National Monuments National Wildlife Refuges National Forests National Grasslands National Marine Sanctuaries National Recreational Area Bureau of Land Management Lands National Wild and Scenic River Military Lands State and Local State Parks State Forests State Wildlife Management Areas State and Local Conservation Easement-Protected Lands Local Parks, Forests, and Trail Systems/Corridors
10 Important Landmark Events in Creation of Protected Areas in the U.S.
11 Hot Springs, AR (1832) 1 st federally protected natural area
12 Yellowstone National Park 1872 World s 1 st National Park, 2 million acres 1880 s attempts blocked at putting in railroads last large population of bison s rampant predator control, development 1960s present natural regulation policy, undevelopment 1995 reintroduction of gray wolves snowmobile fight
13 Adirondacks, NY 1857 Hammond calls for 100 mile circle of wilderness, others call for protection of northern woods 1864 NY Times endorses circle, with not to despoil it stipulation 1869 Adventures in the Wilderness: Camp Life in the Adirondacks 1872 NY State Park Commission stated We do not favor the creation of an expensive park for mere purposes of recreation, but condemning such suggestions, recommend the simple preservation of timber as a measure of political economy... And a steady supply of water from the streams of wilderness. Early 1880 s declining water in Erie Canal and Hudson River caused fear of loss of commerce in NY City 1885 Gov NY signed bill establishing 715,000 acre forest preserve to remain as wild forest lands 1892 call for establishment of a park; boundaries enlarged to become 3,000,000 acre state park 1894 Principle of wilderness preservation in park was written into the state constitution to keep the area forever wild
14 Important Legislative Ways to Create Protected Areas
15 The Antiquities Act of 1906 Allows the President to set aside lands for: "... the protection of objects of historic and scientific interest and to protect all historic and prehistoric sites on United States federal lands and to prohibit excavation or destruction of these antiquities. These areas are given the title of National Monuments. Protection for many National Parks got their start using this law (e.g. Grand Canyon, Grand Tetons). Less protection than wilderness areas or National Parks (e.g. mineral extraction has been allowed on some of these). Devils Tower (WY) Grand Staircase-Escalante (UT) Jackson Hole (WY)
16 Wilderness Areas Wilderness Act of 1964: Highly protected areas set aside by Congress A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain. Wilderness areas serve multiple uses including human recreation. But the law limits uses to those consistent with the Wilderness Act and mandate that each wilderness area be administered to preserve the wilderness character of the area. For example, these areas protect watersheds and clean-water supplies vital to downstream municipalities and agriculture, as well as habitats supporting diverse wildlife, including endangered species, while logging and oil and gas drilling are prohibited. No motorized or mechanical vehicles or equipment-based recreation including mountain biking/bicycles. ~750+ wilderness areas (over 110+ million acres or 5% of U.S. lands) coordinated by the National Wilderness Preservation System (reps from USFS, NPS, BLM, and USFWS); Alaska has about 52% of all wilderness areas The National Wilderness Preservation System: Area Administered by each Federal Agency (July 2004) [1] Agency Wilderness area National Park Service 43,616,250 acres (176,508 km²) 56% U.S. Forest Service 34,867,591 acres (141,104 km²) 18% U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 20,699,108 acres (83,766 km²) 22% Bureau of Land Management 6,512,227 acres (26,354 km²) 4% Total 107,436,608 acres (427,733 km²) Agency land designated wilderness
17 Endangered Species Act (1973) Administered by USFWS and NOAA/NMFS Prohibits unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of all endangered and threatened species or destruction of their habitat, the later includes any government agency Authorizes the determination and listing of endangered and threatened species and their habitats Listing 2 ways: Agency direct listing, or via petition from groups Species Listed as Threatened, Endangered, or Candidate for Listing FWS and NOAA Fisheries are required to create a Recovery Plan outlining the goals, tasks required, likely costs, and estimated timeline to recover endangered specie Provides federal government authority to purchase land and water for the purpose of protecting threatened or endangered species Critical habitats are required to contain "all areas essential to the conservation" of the target species (Section 3(5) (A)), but may exclude essential areas if they determine that economic or other costs exceed the benefit (Section 4(b) (2)). Section 11 citizen suit clause allows public litigation to enforce law
18 Endangered Species Act Over 1300 listed species, but only 45 delisted (18 recovered, 9 extinction), 24 downlisted from Endangered to Threatened. Some protected areas ultimately created for one species Florida panther National Wildlife Refuge (via USFWS) Kirtland s Warbler forest lands (Michigan, via USFS/USFWS) Key Deer National Wildlife Refuge (FL Keys, via USFWS)
19 Single (Focal) Species Used for Local, Regional, and Landscape Approaches to Conservation Often uses focal species that have large ranges, and often are the most charismatic. Types include: Flagship species poster species, flagship, iconic Umbrella species by protecting this species and its habitat, many others indirectly are protected. Most have large ranges and/pr specific habitat requirements. Indicator species usually have very specific habitat needs and are thus sensitive to habitat disturbances, thus these species act as canaries in the coal mine and their population declines are usually a first indication of ecosystem decline.
20 Important Characteristics to Consider When Creating Protected Areas A) Size B) Shape C) Quality D) Landscape Context
21 PAs: Size Matters
22 Are places the size of Yellowstone National Park large enough to sustain wide-ranging species? Yellowstone NP 900,000 ha
23 Tracking an Individual Wolverine Almost 200 miles in 2 months Wildlife Conservation Society
24 In addition to protected areas, Yellowstone wolves use unprotected lands
25 SLOSS Debate SLOSS = Single Large or Several Small Protected Areas? Given a limited amount of resources, which would you preserve? 25km 2 100km 2
26 Does Shape and Size Matter for Protected Areas? For shape: Low Edge:Area Ratio important Long-thin protected areas sensitive to edge effects Longer perimeter boundary = higher maintenance costs As you approach 1, the area increasingly resembles a circle and the edge:area ratio decreases = less edge effects
27 PA Quality Habitat: type, patch size, amount, and configuration Minimize: Fragmentation and Edge Effects these eat into/reduce the quality and thus the effectiveness of your protected area for many species that are not-edge loving; too much edge/fragmentation creates mini-island effects
28 Landscape Context of PA As they say in real estate location is everything! A piece of land (habitat patch/fragment) can have all the food, shelter, and other requirements of a species yet be seldom or unused by a species because it is surrounded by lands that are largely or completely incompatible to the species. Thus, matrix matters, particularly to disturbance-sensitive species.
29 3. Linking New Protected Areas (Parks/Preserves) into Reserve Networks Creating an effective Conservation Quilt Must use PAs and consider unprotected area land uses Corridors best linkage, but habitat stepping stones also useful Find the current gaps in protection is key 1 st step. Locate existing and proposed reserves Evaluate surrounding land
30 Ecological Connectivity (3 common tools for maintaining ecological connectivity) 1. Biological corridors 2. Protect migration routes 3. Protect entire watersheds
31 1. Biological Corridors (one strategy for maintaining ecological connectivity) Connect protected lands Connect populations Allow for dispersal and genetic diversity Maintain viable populations
32 Jaguar Corridor Initiative
33 Jaguar Corridor Initiative Costa Rica Where are the critical links and gaps in conservation?
34 Corridors: Stitching the Conservation Quilt Conservation or Movement Corridors = connect/link protected areas Create connectivity by facilitating dispersal of organisms from one protected area to another Relative importance of corridor dependent on matrix type and condition; design must take this into account! Vitally important for: Migrating species Maintaining Metapopulations Providing Escape Routes Disadvantages Also provide route for disease and invasive spp. Expensive Increased risk of mortality PA PA PA Corridor
35 Corridor Design Two important spatial attributes to Consider: Width and Quality Wider Corridor More Desirable When: Larger Species Present Longer Distance Between PAs Longer Spans of Time needed to Maintain Link Between Pas When Matrix is less compatible to species needs (usually this means more human-dominated) Quality The more compatible w/ species needs the better
36 Ecological Connectivity (3 common tools for maintaining ecological connectivity) 1. Biological corridors 2. Protect migration routes 3. Protect entire watersheds
37 2. Migration Routes Many species migrate for various reasons Reproduction Food/water Latitudinal Altitudinal Migrations span protected and unprotected lands Challenge for science and management
38 Porcupine Caribou Herd Migration, Arctic Coastal Plain U.S. and Canada
39 African Elephant Migration, Mali, Africa 300 mile loop in 8 months
40 Annual Wildebeest Migration, Tanzania and Kenya, Africa
41 Serengeti Highway Project Threatens Animal Migration awf.or g
42 Proposed Alternative Highway Route in Serengeti g
43 Ecological Connectivity (3 common tools for maintaining ecological connectivity) 1. Biological corridors 2. Protect migration routes 3. Protect entire watersheds
44 3. Watershed Preservation (Multiple Spatial Scales; Local, Regional, Continental)
45 Florida Everglades Restoration Project
46 Black bear location data helped inform the proposed acquisition boundary for a new (Everglades Headwaters) National Wildlife Refuge in Florida; thus the bear is serving as an umbrella species for an entire watershed! Proposed acquisition boundary for Everglades Headwaters National Wildlife Refuge
47 Continental Conservation: The Visionary and bold Continental in scale Wildlands Project Attempt to preserve biodiversity, ecological processes and services through protection of core wildlands, key linkages, and sustainable use buffer lands
48 Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative Regional part of the Wildlands Project, ~ 2000 miles long Links protected lands through unprotected lands Provides corridor for wildlife, particularly large, wide-ranging species like grizzly, wolverine, cougar, and gray wolf, but also for migratory ungulates like elk, pronghorn, and bison.
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50 Other regional efforts of the Wildlands Project Northern Appalachians Sky Islands, SW U.S.
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