The theory of plate tectonics
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1 Section B Natural systems 6 I n t e r n a l f o r c e s : p l a t e t e c t o n i c s By the end of this chapter you should be able to: define crustal plates name and locate the Caribbean and adjacent plates distinguish between convergent, divergent and transform plate margins. Concept map earth earth s crust internal convection plate movements divergent convergent transform volcanic activity fold mountains earthquakes Tectonics: the general name given to any major movement of the earth s crust. continental drift The theory of plate tectonics Over a hundred years ago scholars commented on the way in which the continents seemed like parts of a jigsaw puzzle, and how, if they could be moved, they could be fitted together into one large land mass. Later on there was even a name given to this idea continental drift. However, no one could come up with an explanation of how the continents could possibly move, and few people took it seriously. This changed in the 1960s, when scientists showed beyond doubt that the continents had indeed moved, and were still moving. Later on a mechanism 54 CSEC Geography SEC B prf4 CS4.indd 54
2 6 tectonics Eurasian North American Mid-Atlantic Ridge Pacific Pacific Cocos Caribbean African Arabian Philippine Nazca South American Mid-Atlantic Ridge Atlantic-Indian Ridge Mid-Indian Ridge Indo-Australian Antarctic Southeast Indian Ridge Earthquake zone Volcano Major earthquake boundary movement Figure 6.1 Crustal plates, with the seven major plates highlighted. Locate the Caribbean and note the other plates in this size range. convection currents plate tectonics ITQ 1 Name two facing continents that look like they could fit together. Crustal plates: the component portions of the earth s crust that move over the surface of the earth in response to internal forces. for the movements was discovered: convection currents the slow movement of semi-molten rock within the earth s interior. The movement of the continents and the rest of the earth s crust is today known as plate tectonics. The plates are the portions of the earth s crust that actually move. Some of them have continents on them while others, like the Caribbean, do not. In fact the continents are not the complete plate; they are simply the exposed portions of crustal plates. Crustal plates There are seven very large plates (table 6.1) and numerous small ones, and together these make up the entire crust of the earth (figure 6.1). Table 6.1 The largest crustal plates Name Size (km 2 ) Eurasian Europe African Indo-Australian Pacific Nazca North American South American Antarctic CSEC Geography SEC B prf4 CS4.indd 55
3 Section B Natural systems The Caribbean km N NORTH AMERICAN PLATE miles El Chichon 1982 Guatemala Santa Maria Guatemala 1976 Guatemala City 1918 El Salvador 1986 Kingston, Jamaica, 1907 Santiago 1946 Aguadilla Saba Mayagüez Mt Liamuige, St Kitts Soufrière Hills, Montserrat, 1997 Soufrière Guadeloupe (1903, 1956, 1977) Morne Trois Pitons, Dominica Morne Patates, Dominica Mt Pelée, Martinique, Gros Piton, St Lucia La Soufrière, St Vincent,, 1974 Kick-em-Jenny Area of high seismicity Direction of plate movement Recent seismic activity Major earthquake Major volcanic eruption Active volcano Other volcano with recent seismic activity COCOS PLATE Nicaragua 1972 Arenal 1968 NAZCA PLATE Caribbean Caribbean Sea Sea Grenada Grenada St Lucia St Lucia St Vincent St Vincent Atlantic Atlantic Ocean Ocean Barbados Barbados Figure 6.2 The Caribbean, showing the volcanoes along its western and eastern margins. The section below shows how these volcanoes are formed at the margin. ITQ 2 Name the plate you would be on if you lived in (a) The Bahamas, (b) Jamaica, (c) Guyana. The Caribbean (figure 6.2) is not one of the seven large plates, but is still quite big and similar in size to the Philippine and the Arabian. It measures about 3300 sq km. It is bounded by Jamaica and Hispaniola to the north, the Eastern Caribbean islands to the east, the coast of South America to the south and Central America in the west. Most of it is covered by the Caribbean Sea. Beyond the boundaries lie the much larger North American and South American plates, but in the west the smaller Cocos separates it from the huge Pacific. The Nazca south of Panama has the smallest boundary with the Caribbean, and also separates it, and most of South America, from the Pacific. 56 CSEC Geography SEC B prf4 CS4.indd 56
4 6 tectonics margins plate margins The boundaries of the plates, known as the plate margins, are the most active parts of the plates themselves. A crustal plate can be considered as a raft of a portion of the earth s crust moving over the earth s surface. On the plate itself not much is happening, but along its edges there is an abundance of activity, depending on which edge we are considering. It is usual to consider a plate as having three possible types of margins (figure 6.4): a divergent or constructive margin where plates are formed a convergent or destructive margin where plates are destroyed a transform margin where plates pass alongside each other. Figure 6.3 The active crater of a modern volcano in the Galapagos Islands, which are located on the boundary between the Cocos and Nazca plates. The black rocks are fresh basalt lava and the red colouring comes from sulphurous deposits as gas continues to escape from the vent. divergent margins magma lava constructive margins ITQ 3 Name two other mid-oceanic ridges. Divergent margins Divergent margins are where plates are formed and are therefore separating. Thermal currents drive magma (molten rock) beneath the earth s crust to the surface and pour out huge quantities of lava onto the sea floor. This lava forms great ranges of mountains beneath the oceans (and sometimes on land), and as it continues to flow, the newly formed volcanic rock is pushed away from the margin. This both creates new plate material and also drives the plates away from this margin. For this reason it is also known as the constructive margin, as it is here that plates are constructed. A major example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is creating the North American and the Eurasian in the North Atlantic, and the South American and the African in the South Atlantic. Zone of divergence Zone of convergence Transform fault (plan view) Mid-oceanic ridge Mid-oceanic ridge Back arc Island Trench Fore arc ridge arc ridge Sea level Transform fault Continental crust Oceanic crust Oceanic crust Mantle Upwelling currents Mantle Earthquake zone Figure 6.4 movements. The three kinds of plate margins, showing the features created by the plate 57 CSEC Geography SEC B prf4 CS4.indd 57
5 Section B Natural systems convergent margins destructive margins island arc ITQ 4 Name two more island arcs. Convergent margins Because the plates are being created and are spreading there must be a place where they stop moving; this is the convergent margin. In this zone the advancing edge of a plate meets another plate and is driven under it, often with violent consequences, creating volcanoes and earthquakes (and possibly tsunamis). For this reason they are often known as destructive margins. The boundary where the Caribbean meets the Cocos is a fine example of a convergent and destructive margin. The result is many earthquakes and volcanoes. The lava from the volcanoes creates land if it reaches the surface. Much of the mountainous spine of Central America was formed in this way. In other areas, where the destruction is less violent, small islands may form along the margin, which is usually curved and known as an island arc. The mountainous and volcanic Eastern Caribbean islands from Saba to Grenada were formed in this way (figure 6.5). Puerto Rico Virgin Is. St Martin Anegada Fault Anguilla C a r i b b e a n S e a St Croix Saba Quill Eustatius Mt Liamuiga St Kitts Nevis Nevis Peak Antigua Montserrat Soufriere Hills Guadeloupe Mt Soufriere A t l a n t i c O c e a n Dominica Soufriere Active arc Inactive arc Centres of volcanic activity Martinique St Lucia St Vincent Mt Pelee Gros Piton La Soufriere Barbados South Caribbean Fault Grenadines Kick em Jenny Grenada Tobago Trinidad km miles Figure 6.5 The Eastern Caribbean island arc. Note how the volcanoes follow the line of the arc, and the two faults that mark the northern and southern edges of the Caribbean. transform margins ITQ 5 What country lies on the southern transform margin of the Caribbean? Transform margins The third type of plate boundaries are transform margins, where the plates slide past each other without being constructive or destructive. Nevertheless, this is not an inactive area, as the plates themselves are vast sections of the earth s crust, and as they drag past each other the result is often massive earthquakes. The northern boundary of the Caribbean is a transform margin. This is where it slides past the North American, roughly through Hispaniola and Jamaica. This explains why earthquakes are common along this line. 58 CSEC Geography SEC B prf4 CS4.indd 58
6 Summary 6 tectonics Tectonic activity refers to movements in the earth s crust. The earth s crust consists of a number of crustal plates of various sizes; the Caribbean is one of the smaller ones. tectonics refers to the movement of crustal plates in response to convection currents deep inside the earth. Most tectonic activity occurs at plate margins. Divergent (constructive) margins are zones of mountain building and volcanic activity as new plate material is brought to the surface; this often takes place beneath the oceans. At convergent (destructive) margins, one plate is forced under another, giving rise to volcanoes and earthquakes. At transform margins plates slide past one another and earthquakes are common. Answers to ITQs ITQ1 ITQ2 ITQ3 ITQ4 ITQ5 South America and Africa. (a) North American, (b) Caribbean, (c) South American. Atlantic Indian Ridge, Mid-Indian Ridge, South-east Indian Ridge. Falkland Islands; Aleutian Islands; Indonesia (Java/Sumatra); Japanese Islands; Philippines; Mariana Islands. Venezuela. Examination-style questions Examine the diagram of the Caribbean and answer the following questions: km N NORTH AMERICAN PLATE miles El Chichon 1982 Guatemala Santa Maria Guatemala 1976 Guatemala City 1918 El Salvador 1986 Kingston, Jamaica, 1907 Santiago 1946 Aguadilla Saba Mayagüez Mt Liamuige, St Kitts Soufrière Hills, Montserrat, 1997 Soufrière Guadeloupe (1903, 1956, 1977) Morne Trois Pitons, Dominica Morne Patates, Dominica Mt Pelée, Martinique, Gros Piton, St Lucia La Soufrière, St Vincent,, 1974 Kick-em-Jenny Area of high seismicity Direction of plate movement Recent seismic activity Major earthquake Major volcanic eruption Active volcano Other volcano with recent seismic activity COCOS PLATE Nicaragua 1972 Arenal 1968 NAZCA PLATE 1 Name an earthquake in the Greater Antilles. 2 Name a volcanic eruption in the Eastern Caribbean. 3 Suggest reasons why Trinidad has not had a volcanic eruption but could have an earthquake. 4 Sketch and label a cross-section through the plate margin in the Eastern Caribbean. 59 CSEC Geography SEC B prf4 CS4.indd 59
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