On the Road to Abilene: Time to Manage Agreement About MBA Curricular Relevance

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1 Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2011, Vol. 10, No. 1, On the Road to Abilene: Time to Manage Agreement About MBA Curricular Relevance ROBERT S. RUBIN ERICH C. DIERDORFF DePaul University Substantial evidence demonstrates that sound management practice is critical to creating effective organizations. Despite this fact, recent research suggests that courses designed to inculcate human capital competencies are wholly underrepresented in MBA curricula. Scholars have attributed culpability in various directions, collectively suggesting a broad devaluing of management education from one or more stakeholders including recruiters, business school policy makers, faculty members, and students. We bring forth evidence that reveals considerable agreement across stakeholder groups regarding the importance of emphasizing human capital competencies in MBA curricula. That is, contrary to conventional notions, business school stakeholders largely agree with practicing managers that human capital competencies are among the most important to be trained within MBA programs. This evidence suggests an Abilene paradox (Harvey, 1974) wherein the status quo of curricular misalignment is maintained due to a mismanagement of agreement. As such, we argue management faculty must deploy an evidence-based campaign that productively surfaces this agreement and moves MBA programs toward enacting appropriate curricular change congruent with managerial realities.... Of the innumerable organizational work roles, few have garnered as much scholarly and popular attention as that of manager. Such preferential attention is rightfully warranted when one considers the evidence regarding the impact of the managerial role. Research clearly links effective management and managers to positive consequences for both individuals and organizations. For example, large-scale and meta-analytic studies have demonstrated that financial performance is positively associated with broadly adopted management practices, such as selective hiring, succession planning, reward systems, performance management, and training and development (Combs, Liu, Hall, & Ketchen, 2006; Huselid, 1995). This research was supported in part by the Kellstadt Graduate School of Business Summer Research Grant Program and by a generous grant from the Graduate Management Admission Council s Management Education Research Institute. We would like to thank Rachel Edgington at the MERInstitute for her support. Other research indicates that managers are a key component in reducing large employee-related costs, such as turnover (Griffith, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000); and counterproductive behaviors (Greenberg, 1990); as well as increasing employee and team performance (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Stajkovic & Luthans, 2003); organizational citizenship (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000); and commitment and satisfaction (Podsakoff, Bommer, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006). Still other metaanalyses and longitudinal studies demonstrate positive individual-level outcomes, such as career progression and leadership effectiveness, stemming from heightened managerial competence and support (Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005; Lombardo, Ruderman, & McCauley, 1987; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). Finally, in addition to the positive consequences of effective management, it is also clear that poor management practices, such as abusive supervision and harassment, have substantial deleterious effects 148 Copyright of the Academy of Management, all rights reserved. Contents may not be copied, ed, posted to a listserv, or otherwise transmitted without the copyright holder s express written permission. Users may print, download or articles for individual use only.

2 2011 Rubin and Dierdorff 149 on individuals and their organizations, resulting in counterproductive behavior, low performance, and psychological stress (Hershcovis & Barling, 2010; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Podsakoff et al., 2006; Tepper, 2007) as well as career derailment and financial loss (Hogan, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2010). Put simply, the collective evidence unambiguously shows managers as a central factor in organizational effectiveness. [T]he collective evidence unambiguously shows managers as a central factor in organizational effectiveness. Given the overwhelming and convincing evidence regarding the impact of good management, formal managerial training settings such as MBA programs remain a popular choice for aspiring managers, incumbent managers, and recruiters alike (GMAC 2010a; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002). Although it is true that individuals often learn critical workplace competencies through informal trial and error (Tannenbaum, 1997; Tannenbaum, Beard, Mc- Nall, & Salas, 2009), the prevailing logic for most business school stakeholders is that MBA programs can at the very least expedite the acquisition of essential knowledge and skills necessary for effective managerial performance. Yet despite the popularity of MBA programs and clear evidence regarding the importance of managerial competence, MBA programs remain remarkably deficient in their efforts to inculcate relevant management knowledge and skills (Bennis & O Toole, 2005; Mintzberg, 2004; Khurana, 2007; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002). How can it be that after decades of empirical work, cases studies, and no shortage of scholarly commentary on the topic that such curricular deficiency persists? Our purpose here is to explore the forces at play that have maintained this long status quo of curricular misalignment, specifically with respect to curricular content. Our interest is particularly motivated by the clear juxtaposition between the well-established importance of socalled people skills in achieving success in organizations and the underemphasis of these very skills in training future managers by way of MBA programs. Counter to popular notions, however, we contend that the primary reason for the sustained misalignment is not irreproachable dissensus about what is important for managerial success among business school stakeholders (recruiters, faculty, students, alumni), but rather paradoxically, a complete failure to recognize and manage unanimous agreement regarding curricular misalignment. In the sections that follow we first discuss the nature and causes of MBA curricular misalignment purported by the extant literature. This discussion is intended to give a broad background of the curricular misalignment problem as well as contextualize our ensuing arguments. We next present empirical evidence supportive of our contention that misalignment persists in the face of widespread agreement about the key managerial competencies that should be taught in MBA programs. Based upon this evidence, we explore several key rhetorical challenges for graduate management educators to overcome if curricular misalignment is to be effectively reformed. We conclude with a discussion of the consequences from a failure to act. Curricular Misalignment of the MBA In one of the more recent examinations of graduate management education curricula, Rubin and Dierdorff (2009) conducted a comprehensive study of required curricula across MBA programs. This study encompassed the coursework from 373 AACSB-accredited schools of business. These curricula were compared to the results of a largescale competency model derived from the U.S. Department of Labor s Occupational Information Network (O*NET), encompassing 52 managerial occupations and a nationally representative sample of over 8,600 incumbent managers (Dierdorff, Rubin, & Morgeson, 2009). Six major behavioral competencies were found to underlie all managerial work; however, two competency domains (managing human capital and managing decision-making processes) were deemed by practicing managers to be significantly more important than the others (managing administration and control, managing strategy and innovation, managing logistics and technology, and managing the task environment). When Rubin and Dierdorff cross-referenced these six behavioral competencies to MBA curricula designed to inculcate these competencies, they found substantial misalignment. This misalignment predominately emerged from MBA program designs that overemphasized curricula in competencies practicing managers rated as less important for performing managerial work (e.g., managing administration and control), while underemphasizing those that are most important (i.e., managing human capital and decision-making processes). Considering that 2 decades ago Porter and McKibbin (1988: 65) summarized business school criticisms by noting, for all the changes in the last 25 years, business schools have not made much progress in

3 150 Academy of Management Learning & Education March developing their students leadership and interpersonal skills, it is quite clear from Rubin and Dierdorff s (2009) results that not much has changed. Concerns about such persistent misalignment have led some scholars to argue that particular stakeholders or institutional actors are to blame (e.g., Rynes & Trank, 1999). Here, researchers have sought to explain misalignment by pointing to the influences of key business school stakeholders on curricular design. For example, stakeholder groups such as business school administrators (Gioa & Corley, 2002); accrediting bodies (Francisco, Noland, & Sinclair, 2008; Khurana, 2007); students (Trank & Rynes, 2003); and recruiters (Eberhardt, McGee, Moser, 1997; Rynes, Trank, Lawson, & Ilies, 2003; Safón, 2007) have been cited and derided for their roles in shaping or maintaining MBA program content. Interestingly, the stakeholder group most proximal to ascertaining the training content for future managerial work practicing managers is rarely included in any formal effort to help inform program curricula. This is unfortunate, as Rubin and Dierdorff (2009: 211) remarked: [I]f the primary intent of an MBA program is to develop future managers (or strengthen current managers capabilities), then the required curricula of such programs should represent an institution s best attempt to capture the most essential content relevant to managerial work. Put simply, who better to determine what is required to perform managerial work than managers themselves? Indeed, meta-analytic research from the work analysis literature demonstrates that incumbents are reliable sources for identifying responsibilities, knowledge, and skills critical for performing work roles (Dierdorff & Morgeson, 2009). Further, work analysis research clearly shows that a thorough understanding of the requirements of managerial work has been reached (Dierdorff et al., 2009). Thus, although recruiters, administrators, students, and in many cases recent graduates all play a role in shaping a business school s environment, their perspectives regarding the competencies required by managers to be successful is at best indirect and, as research suggests, perhaps misinformed. The general reliance on such disparate informants of curricular priorities and the overall neglect of practicing managers raises serious questions regarding the relative accuracy and general consensus of perspectives across these groups. Anecdotes would suggest that stakeholders this diverse would, accordingly, hold incongruent views on the importance of various managerial competencies. If these anecdotes hold true, the ambiguity created by the dissensus around what should be emphasized in MBA curricula would most certainly help to explain the persistence of MBA misalignment. However, when searching the extant literature for systematic evidence of such differences across stakeholders, one is left wanting. This silence prompts the fundamental question as to whether different stakeholders actually hold divergent views of MBA misalignment. We suspected otherwise from our own personal experiences, but sought to examine our contention against data from available research applicable to this question. EVIDENCE OF (DIS)AGREEMENT It is interesting that although prior literature has not systematically and simultaneously examined the views of multiple stakeholders on MBA misalignment, several surveys exist that offer rather pertinent evidence. Stakeholder groups represented in these surveys span incumbent managers, policy makers (e.g., MBA administrators or associate deans), recruiters, business school faculty, and MBA alumni. Moreover, these surveys specifically reflect perceptions held by various stakeholders regarding the behavioral competencies identified by Rubin and Dierdorff (2009) as required of managers. This characteristic is especially important because it allows for a valid comparative analysis using a common language across stakeholders (i.e., common set of competencies). In order to delve more deeply into the issue of stakeholder consensus dissensus, we organize our ensuing discussion of the available evidence by three broad questions apropos to training of managers via MBA programs. 1 What Competencies Are Most Important for Performing Managerial Roles? The work analysis literature demonstrates wide agreement about what is required to perform managerial roles, with a recent study substantiating 1 Data from practicing managers were derived from Rubin and Dierdorff (2009). MBA policy-maker data were from Dierdorff and Rubin (2006). MBA alumni data were from the GMAC 2007 Alumni Perspectives Survey, and recruiter data were from the GMAC 2007 Corporate Recruiter Survey. Finally, faculty data were from a survey conducted in preparation of this essay. Faculty respondents spanned 17 institutions and all major functional areas (e.g., finance, economics, management, accounting, etc.). Samples sizes are shown in figure and table captions.

4 2011 Rubin and Dierdorff 151 FIGURE 1 Relative Importance of Managerial Competencies. Note. Ratings were standardized to a 100-pt importance scale. MBA Alumni data (n ) from GMAC 2007 Alumni Perspectives Survey. Faculty data from survey conducted in preparation of this essay (n 74). Policy-maker data (n 117) from Dierdorff and Rubin (2006). Incumbent data (n 8633) from Rubin and Dierdorff (2009). this consensus across 50 years of empirical research (Dierdorff et al., 2009). Yet, little is known regarding whether such knowledge has generally disseminated outside this literature or, even if it has, what views other stakeholder groups still might hold in this regard. Figure 1 displays the perceived importance for the six required managerial competencies by practicing managers, MBA alumni, MBA policy makers, and business school faculty. A few overall level or elevation differences across these stakeholders are apparent. For example, policy makers generally rated competencies higher than other groups, and MBA alumni and policy makers perceived managing strategy and innovation as relatively more important than managing human capital when compared to incumbent managers. Despite these elevation differences, however, the general patterns of perceived importance across the competencies are remarkably similar. The nearly parallel peaks and valleys of the profiles suggest that there is substantial consensus across MBA alumni, business school faculty, policy makers, and practicing managers about the relative importance of the different competencies required for performing managerial roles. 2 [T]here is substantial consensus across MBA alumni, business school faculty, policy makers, and practicing managers about the relative importance of the different competencies required for performing managerial roles. Are Required Managerial Competencies Covered by MBA Curricula? As discussed previously, Rubin and Dierdorff (2009) provided evidence of a misalignment between the relative importance of required managerial competencies and the extent to which these competencies are covered in MBA curricula. The authors categorized curricula (over 3500 courses) to the focal competencies using the courses primary topical content, and compared the curricula-competency coverage to an ideal coverage based on the relative importance incumbent managers placed on each competency. Thus, their findings reflect the degree to which MBA curricula trains for the demands of managerial 2 Our faculty sample was diverse in terms of disciplinary area, and this might affect faculty perceptions of competency importance. To test this possibility, we conducted MANOVA where the independent variable was dichotomously coded as management versus nonmanagement faculty (41% of the sample was management). Consistent with our between-stakeholder findings, consensus was evident within faculty as MANOVA results failed to display significant differences in competency rating profiles (F 2.01 df 6, 67, p.05).

5 152 Academy of Management Learning & Education March reality. A remaining question, however, is whether other stakeholder groups perceive similar curricula-competency coverage that was shown by Rubin and Dierdorff to result in MBA misalignment. Figure 2 plots the results from this prior research alongside perceptions of MBA policy makers regarding how much each competency is emphasized in their curricula. What is striking from this figure is the close match of actual coverage to the coverage perceptions of MBA policy makers. With the exception of managing logistics and technology where MBA policy makers perceived more coverage than actually offered, coverage percentages are nearly identical. These data clearly indicate that MBA policy makers are well aware of how much each required competency is emphasized in their programs curricula, despite the misalignment shown by the ideal coverage derived from practicing mangers. Does the MBA Adequately Prepare Individuals for Future Managerial Roles? In addition to examinations of competency coverage in MBA curricula, another pertinent question relates to whether different stakeholder groups view the MBA as an adequate training ground for future managerial roles. Perceptions of utility are important because they are associated with increased motivation to learn (Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000). Moreover, the extent to which stakeholder groups see the MBA as an effective means to learn critical competencies needed for selection, performance, or promotion is likely to impact if (and how often) such groups recommend or refer others to MBA programs. At a molar level, evidence suggests generally favorable views toward the training utility of the MBA. For instance, MBA alumni frequently indicate that they would pursue the degree today knowing what they know now about MBA programs and view the MBA as adding value overall (Baruch & Leeming, 2001; GMAC, 2010b). Yet, we know little about how perceptions of different stakeholder groups compare to one another. Nor do we know if stakeholders perceive MBA programs as useful training vehicles for specific managerial competencies. Table 1 presents MBA alumni and recruiter perceptions related to the adequacy of MBA programs in training particular managerial competencies. The table also presents the actual curricular coverage of these competencies in MBA programs. The findings indicate that both MBA alumni and recruiters share similarly favorable views of the MBA for training managerial competencies (all ratings are above the midpoint). What is interesting, however, is that these stakeholder groups appear to hold the most favorable perceptions for the very two competencies that in actuality receive the least coverage in MBA curricula (managing strategy & innovation and managing decision-making processes). As displayed in Figure 3, along with FIGURE 2 MBA Curricula and Managerial Competency Coverage. Note. Scores represent percentages of coverage received in MBA curricula. Benchmark (derived from incumbent managers) and Actual Coverage data from Rubin and Dierdorff (2009). Policy-maker data (n 117) from Dierdorff and Rubin (2006).

6 2011 Rubin and Dierdorff 153 TABLE 1 Perceptions of the Adequacy of MBA Training for Specific Competencies Competency Curricular Coverage MBA Alumni Recruiters Managing administration 26.99% 3.54 (5) n/a & control Managing the task 21.11% 3.66 (3) 3.67 (3) environment Managing logistics & 15.44% 3.25 (6) 3.59 (4) technology Managing human capital 12.98% 3.55 (4) 3.53 (5) Managing decisionmaking 9.63% 3.90 (2) 3.90 (2) processes Managing strategy & innovation 8.87% 4.04 (1) 4.01 (1) Note. Curricular Coverage data taken from Rubin and Dierdorff (2009) and represent the average percentages of coverage each competency receives in required MBA curricula (n 373 schools). MBA Alumni data (n ) from GMAC 2007 Alumni Perspectives Survey and are on an ascending 5-pt scale (i.e., higher values more positive). Recruiter data (n 766) from GMAC 2007 Corporate Recruiter Survey and were converted to an ascending 5-pt scale. Rank orders are shown in parentheses. managing human capital, these two competencies are also among those for which MBA alumni most desire additional training. Figure 3 also quite clearly indicates that the competencies currently receiving the most coverage in MBA curricula are those MBA alumni perceive to be the least needed for further post-mba development. ON THE ROAD TO ABILENE What is strikingly clear from the evidence just presented is that, contrary to conventional thinking, there appears to be an overarching consensus across diverse business school stakeholders regarding the importance of competencies necessary to acquire in MBA programs. That is, stakeholders seem to agree that certain competencies deserve more or less coverage in the curricula than others. Equally important, alumni, recruiters, faculty, and policy makers appear to be generally aligned with the views of actual practicing managers, lending significant veracity to their perceptions. In short, the collective evidence is strongly supportive of our contention that there is indeed consensus, not dissensus, across stakeholder groups. Confronted with this evidence of stakeholder consensus, we could not help but be reminded of the now classic concept of the Abilene paradox (Harvey, 1974, 1988). This concept describes the dysfunction that arises when the status quo is maintained because individuals fail to communicate their agreement by taking actions in contradiction to the data they have for dealing with prob- FIGURE 3 Areas Perceived as Needing More Training Post-MBA. Note. Desire Additional Training are percentages of MBA alumni indicating a desire for additional training in a particular competency. These data are from GMAC 2007 Alumni Perspectives Survey (n 2823). Provided in MBA Curricula represents the average percentage of treatment each competency receives in MBA curricula. These data are from Rubin and Dierdorff (2009). Graph lines range from 5% to 30%.

7 154 Academy of Management Learning & Education March lems, and, as a result, compound their problems rather than solve them (Harvey, 1974: 69). Put more simply, the Abilene paradox does not stem from the inability to manage conflict or disagreement but rather from the inability to effectively manage agreement. The parallels to MBA misalignment are remarkably apparent. For example, Harvey notes that the Abilene paradox entails a certain underlying agreement about the problem and potential solutions at hand that is only implicitly or privately shared, but can be rapidly exposed if data are explicitly discussed. In our case, the evidence shows that when individually asked, stakeholders believe competencies such as managing human capital are more important and should receive more emphasis in MBA program curricula than the very competencies that to date receive the most emphasis (e.g., managing administration and control). Harvey also notes an inaccurate perception of reality is maintained, even promoted, because individuals fail to communicate individually and collectively held consensus views. In this sense, MBA programs have adopted a form of pluralistic ignorance in which stakeholders seem to privately agree what competencies ought to be emphasized, but fail to manage such agreement in practice, inevitably maintaining the curricular misalignment that remains so persistent. MBA programs have adopted a form of pluralistic ignorance in which stakeholders seem to privately agree what competencies ought to be emphasized, but fail to manage such agreement in practice, inevitably maintaining the curricular misalignment that remains so persistent. Bypassing Abilene Harvey (1988) argued that there are key obstacles that must be overcome into order to effectively deal with the Abilene paradox. One of these pertains to responsibility for problem solving, that is determining who holds the ultimate accountability for addressing the mismanagement of agreement. An astute observer would most certainly point out that while managers, recruiters, alumni, and policy makers are key players in the business school environment, they are not the primary developers of curricula. It should come as no surprise then that such responsibility solely resides with business school faculty. Rightfully so, faculty do not abdicate curricular design to those more distal to the educational process. Thus, in business schools across the country, faculty committees (with some administrative leadership) convene to evaluate, redesign, and overhaul their MBA curricula. These curriculum committees face myriad challenges, including administrative pressures to create attractive programs that drive enrollments, to ensure that their respective disciplines are protected in the curricula, as well as dealing with institutional resource constraints. The academy is replete with horror stories from these committees regarding their general ineffectiveness and political repugnance. Nonetheless, the curriculum buck unequivocally stops with business school faculty. Another critical obstacle that arises when trying to address the Abilene paradox is to avoid being the victimizer or playing the victim. Although curriculum committees are known to be difficult assignments, they tend to be all the more painful for management faculty, as at least one of the competency areas least represented in MBA program curricula (managing human capital) falls entirely in our disciplinary domain. Rubin and Dierdorff (2009) found, for instance, that only 28% of MBA programs offer two or more required courses in managing human capital compared with 87% of schools offering two or more courses (and 48% offering three or more courses) in managing administration and control. Given these facts, management faculty are likely to be angry and blame their business school colleagues or external stakeholders. Yet, Harvey reminds us that dysfunctional decision making can be exacerbated by such fault-finding behaviors that at worst, drain energy from the problem-solving efforts (Harvey, 1988: 23). As previously noted, much of the criticism of MBA programs includes blame placed on one or more of the stakeholder groups we examined. This serves merely to diminish the role played by faculty in maintaining MBA misalignment and, perhaps worse, it simultaneously diverts attention away from truly fixing the misalignment. In viewing the disregard of misalignment by faculty curriculum committees, it is also quite easy to play the victim and assume that the underemphasis of managing human capital is the direct result of the delegitimization of the management discipline (see Trank & Rynes, 2003). However real such a delegitimization may be, adopting the stance that our discipline is somehow unfairly treated or viewed as inferior greatly increases our risks of Pygmalion and becoming what we fear we may be. This is partic-

8 2011 Rubin and Dierdorff 155 ularly true when examining the survey data in which business school faculty across the disciplines appear to be quite knowledgeable of the increased importance of managing human capital in successful management. We thus echo Hambrick (1994) who remarked over 15 years ago that delegitimization lies not in any conspiracy or antagonism toward the field of management, but rather in our own failure to present ourselves our body of knowledge and our perspective to the world of affairs. In other words, despite the overwhelming empirical evidence that (1) effective people management drives business performance, (2) MBA program curricula are highly deficient in representing this domain, and, (3) there is clear agreement among stakeholders that managing human capital should be emphasized considerably more in MBA required curricula, MBA programs remain misaligned with management realities and it is largely our fault. 3 Overcoming the obstacles of responsibility for problem solving and avoidance of victimization are difficult enough, yet this is also insufficient in addressing perhaps the largest obstacle inhibiting the bypass of the Abilene paradox, namely, productively confronting the reality of MBA misalignment. As Harvey (1998: 24) writes, confrontation becomes the process of facing issues squarely, openly, and directly in an effort to discover whether the nature of the underlying collective reality is agreement or conflict. Similar to Argyris (1991) notion of double-loop learning, such productive confrontation must seek to expose underlying assumptions, which our evidence suggests should include directly surfacing the stakeholder consensus that the MBA is misaligned with managerial reality. Put bluntly, as management educators we are left with two choices: Either we remain quietly complicit in this paradox or we begin to engage in productive confrontation using evidencebased arguments. Either we remain quietly complicit in this paradox or we begin to engage in productive confrontation using evidencebased arguments. 3 Important to note, although we are using the example of managing human capital, similar arguments could be made for other competency areas that are underemphasized in curricula such as managing decision-making processes. See Graen (2009), for example, who has recently extolled the importance of increasing these capabilities in business education. Of course productive confrontation, even with strong evidence, is not without difficulties. Harvey suggests one of the reasons people fail to productively confront the contradictions they face lies in the intense anxiety that is created as they think about acting in accordance with what they believe needs to be done (Harvey, 1988: 21). He notes specifically that people hold negative fantasies or feelings that any action to confront will be met with consequences that are perhaps worse than the present state. Management faculty may feel that confronting others on a curriculum committee may result in actually exacerbating misalignment. Thus, before confronting faculty peers, it is important to remember that it is not that organizational members do not know what needs to be done they do know (Harvey, 1988: 21). As our data suggest, management faculty might be surprised to learn that other faculty and key stakeholders are keenly aware of the importance of managing human capital for managerial success. Being aware of this importance and believing that such importance warrants change is, of course, not the same thing. To be certain, the most difficult challenge management faculty face in confronting misalignment is how to handle prevalent half-truths : arguments that possess some bit of truth, but overall lack real evidence (Pfeffer & Sutton, 2006). The danger in such half-truths is that they are often cloaked in seemingly irrefutable counterclaims and rely on rhetorical evidence rather than substantiated research. In this vein, we try next to equip faculty with evidence that exposes the most insidious half-truths used to defend the curricular status quo with respect to the underemphasis of managing human capital competencies. Productively Confronting Curricular Half-Truths Half-Truth #1: People Skills Cannot Be Taught Most management faculty have undoubtedly heard arguments lofted against formal management coursework on the basis that such competencies simply cannot be taught in the classroom. Such refutations also frequently allude to the notion that management is a craft best learned through a process of trial and error and experience. Although there may be some truth in many of these and similar counterarguments, decades of research evidence readily debunks most arguments along these lines as simply unfounded. For example, while it is true that most learning is informal on the job, it is wholly untrue that managing human capital competencies cannot be for-

9 156 Academy of Management Learning & Education March mally trained. Indeed, multiple meta-analyses have shown that individuals can acquire various people-related skills by way of formal training and development efforts (see Collins & Holton, 2004; Burke & Day, 1989). This is not to say that people skills may only be developed via formal training or that applied experiences are not beneficial. Both formal and experiential settings can be effective for developing people skills. We suspect that at the heart of this articulated half-truth are related concerns about precisely how such people skills are formally trained (i.e., instructional techniques that are used). It is likely true that training people skills may be more challenging than training some knowledge-based competencies, and these skills often require special instructional methods (e.g., behavioral modeling) and instructor expertise in such methods. However, it is important to remember that ample evidence exists to support the efficacy of inculcating a foundation of people skills through of formal training, while there is an absence of evidence suggesting that such skills cannot be formally trained. On balance, we see the suggestion that people skills cannot be trained as mostly unfounded, with truth only found in the andragological challenges associated with inculcating this complex skill set. Half-Truth #2: They ll Get It Somewhere Else The basic argument here is that exposure to human capital content by way of internships, extracurricular activities, and program electives is readily available to students outside a required curriculum. Some detractors will argue similarly that because they teach using the case method or have team projects, students receive ample exposure to human capital content. A few important points are critical here. First, only required curricula of programs clearly communicate to students what is essential and what is less important. The message is clear to students regarding the relative value of courses when a program requires three finance courses and no organizational behavior course, despite counterclaims that the organizational behavior class is a popular elective. In other words, an MBA program s required curriculum communicates the value, whether perceived or objective, of particular topical content. Second, the data are unequivocal regarding alumni perceptions of career training needs. The data presented here clearly indicate that alumni feel ill prepared by their MBA programs in the area of human capital competencies (see Fig. 3). Third, while it is true that students have access to human capital electives, it is also true that learner motivation is heavily influenced by prior perceptions of utility (see Colquitt et al., 2000). Thus, taking initiative to enroll in such elective courses is predicated on students understanding the significance of managing human capital to their own career success, as well as the success of the organizations in which they work. Learning about such utility is the role of introductory or survey courses on various topics. Finally, many will point to internship experiences or extracurricular activities as the breeding grounds for inculcating human capital. We do not deny that some evidence suggests skill development may occur in these contexts (e.g., Howard, 1986; Rubin, Baldwin, & Bommer, 2002), but few could argue that such learning is systematic. Thus, depending on the variable quality of these experiences, the majority of students are not likely to be systematically exposed to the most important human capital knowledge and skills. Half-Truth #3: There Is No Consensus for Managerial Work One popular argument proffered against recalibrating management education curricula is that because management is not a well-established profession, we simply cannot agree upon the knowledge and skills that are truly important for managers. This argument opens up the curricula to virtually any combination of course content that business schools see as adding value (O Toole, 2009). The real truth is that we have substantial evidence and agreement about what it is that managers do and what makes them successful. Over 5 decades of research has consistently shown that the competencies required of managers are more similar than different, regardless of industry, focus, or context (Dierdorff et al., 2009). We readily admit the truth in this half-truth is that management has yet to become a highly professionalized occupation, exhibiting the hallmarks of an established profession (Khurana, 2007). At the same time, however, labor market data routinely show that managerial occupations represent one of the largest occupational groups in national workforces. For example, U.S. Department of Labor data show that management-related jobs span over 65 distinct occupations and a dozen different industries. Management is clearly a significant, if not the most important, occupational cluster in the U.S. labor force. The sheer prevalence of managerial occupations alone warrants institutionally based training built upon the evidence regarding what constitutes successful job performance.

10 2011 Rubin and Dierdorff 157 Finally, it is also clear from years of survey research conducted by the Graduate Management Admission Council that within 3 5 years of graduating, the majority of MBA alumni will assume a managerial role or possess significant managerial responsibilities (GMAC, 2004, 2007a). It is no surprise then, that graduate management education programs train individuals who by and large assume managerial roles. Thus, arguments to forgo aligning curricula with important managerial competency categories essentially ignore the fact that MBA graduates will spend the majority of their work life in managerial roles. Half-Truth #4: We Train Leaders, Not Managers This subtle and deeply ingrained half-truth is reflected in mission statements of the majority of business schools. The basic logic offered here is that because MBA programs prepare future leaders, course content related to management of people is not only less relevant, but also perhaps counterproductive. Such thinking follows decades of writing that portrays managers and management as venal and untrustworthy (Khurana, 2007). First, let us be clear: Leadership represents a critically important set of very complex influence skills worthy of scholarly and practical attention. But it is also important to remember that no occupation called leader is represented in the 965 titles that are contained in the U.S. Department of Labor s O*NET database. As noted above, the business of business schools is essentially to train individuals for distinct occupational roles in business, and these roles are clearly managerial in nature. Second, as detailed elsewhere and beyond our scope here (e.g., Bedeian & Hunt, 2006; Mumford, Campion, & Morgeson, 2007), leadership competency is nested within the managerial role. That is, although it is true that one need not hold the authority of manager to invoke leadership, the managerial role requires the effective deployment of many leadership competencies to be successful (Dierdorff et al., 2009). Put simply, competent management requires competent leadership. Perhaps this is why even the most leadership branded MBA programs are essentially, like other MBA programs, training centers for the acquisition of functional business knowledge. Thus to point out the obvious, if MBA programs do in fact train future leaders and not managers, where are all the courses dedicated to leadership? Where are the developmental activities designed to provide opportunities to experience leadership? With limited exceptions, required courses dedicated to leadership are relatively rare across MBA programs (Rubin & Dierdorff, 2009). MBA programs may claim they train leaders and not managers to avoid decades of stigma associated with Dilbertian renderings of managers, but our view is essentially that leader-versus-manager rhetoric is a convenient facade designed to sidetrack the discussion away from evidence about what capabilities managers need on the job to be successful. Half-Truth #5: The Solution Is Curriculum Integration In recalibrating curricula, scholars have argued that business schools must eventually find ways to design MBA curricular content to be multidisciplinary or integrative in nature (Mintzberg, 2004; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002; Pharr, 2000). Such an approach is both appealing and compelling, but at best is a half-truth for several reasons. First, changes to curricula must begin with curricular content because such content is a priori to any other curricular intervention. A focus on how content is taught is frankly subsequent to what is taught. As O Toole remarks, Only when such questions about content have been answered can one then usefully ask, how is the best way to deliver it? (2009: 553). Second, decades of learning theory and research reveal that integration represents higher level cognitive activities requiring mastery of lower level content knowledge (see Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Kraiger, Ford, & Salas, 1993). Thus, a capstone class that attempts to integrate disciplinary areas is meaningless if students have not been significantly exposed to the critical lower level knowledge across these disciplines. Compounding the problems with the logic of integration, scholars have enumerated the significant institutional barriers that currently prevent such sweeping changes from even occurring (see Navarro, 2007). Third, conflated in arguments for content integration has been an emphasis on teaching integration through experiential or action-learning models (O Toole, 2009). Here again, content is primary to process. We are in full agreement these andragogical approaches are valuable, but argue that we must temporarily resist seductive attempts to redesign teaching modalities. If content is left unchanged, then simply modifying delivery methods, unfortunately, does not alter the fundamental problem of under-representation of managing human capital in MBA curricula.

11 158 Academy of Management Learning & Education March Half-Truth #6: Curriculum Redesign Is a Win Lose Game As any faculty member will likely attest, curriculum reform is usually approached from the perspective of departmental winners and losers. We are reminded of a wonderful cartoon depicting two dogs conversing at a bar. The caption reads, It s not enough for dogs to win. Cats must also lose. It is certainly true that in most business schools departments stand to benefit greatly, both economically and socially (e.g., additional faculty positions), from increased presence in required curricula. As a management education community we must actively lobby and campaign for additional required course space, acting within the institutional system, no matter how dysfunctional it may be. At the same time, we should not be dismissive of other business school disciplines. While advocating and explaining the importance of managing human capital for managerial success, we must report to nonmanagement faculty that evidence also shows managers do indeed require competencies in accounting, finance, marketing, and so forth (Dierdorff et al., 2009). The crucial lesson here is that building a more aligned MBA program rarely equates to trading one course for another, but rather to recalibrating the emphasis of coursework to be aligned with managerial reality. CONSEQUENCES OF INACTION Our quiet complicity of curricular misalignment serves to endorse many of the half-truths presented above, including the view that at its core, management lacks legitimacy. Moreover, standing on the sidelines contributes to our active proliferation of the observed academic practitioner gap (Rynes, Giluk, & Brown, 2007). As educational practitioners we are failing to influence educational practices that have been erected contrary to the best available evidence. In this sense, we are no better than the management practitioners we so deride for relying on intuitive rather than evidencebased practices (e.g., Rynes, Colbert, & Brown, 2002). Our continued collusion with the status quo raises several serious ethical concerns. A consideration of ethics always requires the acknowledgment of obligations one has to various stakeholder groups (Werhane, 1985). At the broadest level, we as business school educators have the universal obligation to promote the mastery of managerial competencies and to increase the likelihood of successful transfer to future managerial roles. The extant literature on the relevancy of the MBA to managerial reality quite clearly indicates that we are falling short of this central obligation. Moreover, consider the impact of the current misalignment on the effectiveness of the organizations who hire our MBA graduates. It is reasonable to believe that the MBA carries with it the assumption of the acquisition of a particular set of managerial competencies. Given that for most individuals the MBA represents their terminal degree, we risk unleashing into the world of work a cadre of individuals who are ill equipped to manage people. We would be remiss not to recognize the ethical implications of the misalignment in particular for MBA students. In the most basic sense there is the critical issue of trust, where students expect business schools (and thus faculty) to build curricula that are correctly aligned with the needs of the careers to which they aspire. Not informing students as they sit in our classes that they are likely to graduate with considerable deficiencies in exposure to competencies such as managing human capital, as well as failing to provide students with the evidence regarding the critical importance of people management toward their own and organizational success, equates to educational negligence. Thus, we share the responsibility for setting up students for failure or at least perpetuating future poor management practice. Recall that the survey results we presented also clearly show MBA alumni report the need for more training in the competencies most underemphasized. Although students may not know in situ that they are missing these competencies, it becomes quickly apparent when confronted by the demands of their work roles. Concluding Thoughts By this point, the reader may feel that this essay is bit idealistic in tone and intent. We fully concede that we are placing significant credence in the educational process, and we believe that curriculum is the foundation and primary facilitator of that process. Yet, we also recognize that myriad factors are associated with successful acquisition of competencies in any MBA program. The training and development literature clearly shows that inputs into the educational process are critical. Thus, student readiness via motivation, experience, and academic preparation are central to creating contexts likely to produce successful learners, as others have discussed (e.g., Mintzberg, 2004). Based on our own experiences, we can certainly affirm that the quality of the learning context is amplified by high-quality inputs (Rubin, Dierdorff & Morgeson, 2011). At the same time, our central point is that

12 2011 Rubin and Dierdorff 159 when we ignore curricular relevance, student profiles matter less with respect to turning out wellrounded professionals. Imagine for a moment that students received little exposure to accounting in MBA programs. A smart, experienced student (i.e., an ideal profile) would likely graduate with stellar grades, great internships, and plethora of opportunities, yet still face serious challenges on the job when attempting to interpret and utilize financial data. In similar fashion, the same high-quality student is no better prepared to be a people manager after an MBA program where the curriculum ignores managing human capital. O Toole (2009: 558) rightly notes that in designing MBA curricula, we must begin with questions regarding what managers need to know and what skills will they need to possess, to be successful in the future. We hope this point about the primary need to establish curricula does not get lost in arguments (important in their own right) about who should comprise the MBA student population. In the end, it seems management faculty face a very real choice between ignoring the longstanding misalignment of MBA curricula and continuing the hand wringing about the lack of people-focused coursework in MBA programs, or beginning to openly confront the paradox by making evidence-based cases for the importance of including underrepresented content in MBA curricula. It is interesting to note that positing such arguments may not be as difficult as one would presume, given the substantial consensus across incumbent managers, recruiters, faculty, policy makers, and MBA alumni presented here. However, it also is necessary to remember two characteristics that make the Abilene paradox dysfunctional for organizations. First, the dysfunction is not due to a failure to agree but rather in spite of such agreement. The data presented herein indicate that what is needed most is more effective management of agreement. Second, Harvey (1988) reminds us that often it simply takes one person to speak out to burst the expectation bubble that allows the paradox to continue. Apropos to MBA misalignment, this bubble is our discipline s false sense that other stakeholder groups fail to perceive the importance of managing human capital. As such, management departments would be well advised to make MBA curricula committee assignments carefully, selecting individuals who not only possess knowledge along the lines presented here, but also the organizational savvy to use such evidence productively to confront others. Our conclusion is that when given the opportunity, we, as management faculty, must assemble the evidence, firmly grasp the wheel, and make a u-turn that will drive decisions about MBA curricula away from Abilene. REFERENCES Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.) 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Journal of Applied Psychology, 89: Khurana, R From higher aims to hired hands: The social transformation of American business schools and unfulfilled promise of management as a profession. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78: Lombardo, M. M., Ruderman, M. N., & McCauley, C. D Explanations of success and derailment in upper-level management positions. Journal of Business & Psychology, 2: Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. The Leadership Quarterly, 7: Mintzberg, H Managers not MBAs, A hard look at the soft practice of managing and management development. London: Prentice Hall. Mumford, T. V., Campion, M. A., & Morgeson, F. P The leadership skills strataplex: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels. The Leadership Quarterly, 18: Navarro, P The MBA core curricula of top-ranked U.S. business schools: A study in failure? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 7: Ng, T. W. H., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C Predictors of objective and subjective career success: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 58: O Toole, J The pluralistic future of management education. In S. J. Armstrong & C. V. Fukami (Eds.), Handbook of management learning education and development, Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Pfeffer, J., & Fong, C. T The end of business schools? Less success than meets the eye. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 1: Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I., Hard fact, dangerous half-truths, and total nonsense: Profiting from evidence-based management. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Pharr, S. W Foundational considerations for establishing an integrated business common core curriculum. Journal of Education for Business, 76: Podsakoff, P. M., Bommer, W. H., Podsakoff, N., & MacKenzie, S. B Relationships between leader reward and punishment behavior and subordinate attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors: A meta-analytic review of existing and new research. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99: Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G Organizational citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26: Porter, L., & McKibbin, L Management education and development: Drift or thrust into the 21st century. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rubin, R. S., Baldwin, T. T., & Bommer, W. H Using extracurricular activity as an indicator of interpersonal skills: Prudent evaluation or recruiting malpractice? Human Resource Management, 41: Rubin, R. S., & Dierdorff, E. C How relevant is the MBA? Assessing the alignment of required MBA curricula and required managerial competencies. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 8: Rubin, R. S., Dierdorff, E. C., & Morgeson, F. P (Re)defining MBA program quality: Toward a comprehensive model. Technical report presented to the MERInstitute of the Graduate Management Admission Council, McLean, VA. Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G HR professionals beliefs about effective human resource practices: Correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41: Rynes, S. L., Giluk, T. L., & Brown, K. G The very separate worlds of academic and practitioner periodicals inhumanresourcemanagement.implicationsforevidencebased management. Academy of Management Journal, 55: Rynes, S. L., & Trank, C. Q Behavioral science in the business school curriculum: Teaching in a changing insti-

14 2011 Rubin and Dierdorff 161 tutional environment. Academy of Management Review, 24: Rynes, S. L., Trank, C. Q., Lawson, A. M., & Ilies, R Behavioral coursework in business education: Growing evidence of a legitimacy crisis. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2: Safón, V Factors that influence recruiters choice of b- schools and their MBA graduates: Evidence and implications for b-schools. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6: Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F Behavioral management and task performance in organizations: Conceptual background, meta-analysis, and test of alternative models. Personnel Psychology, 56: Tepper, B. J Abusive supervision in work organizations: Review, synthesis, and research agenda. Journal of Management, 33: Trank, C. Q., & Rynes, S. L Who moved our cheese? Reclaiming professionalism in business education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2: Tannenbaum, S. I Enhancing continuous learning: Diagnostic findings from multiple companies. Human Resource Management, 36: Tannebaum, S. I., Beard, R. L., McNall, L. A., & Salas, E Informal learning and development in organizations. In S. W. J. Kozlowski and E. Salas (Eds.), Learning, Training, and Development in Organizations: New York: Routledge. Werhane, P Persons, rights, and corporations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. Robert S. Rubin (rrubin@depaul. edu) is an associate professor in the management department at DePaul University s Kellstadt Graduate School of Business. His research examines antecedents and outcomes of effective leadership, social and emotional individual differences, and graduate management education. Rubin received his PhD in organizational psychology from Saint Louis University. Erich C. Dierdorff (edierdor@ depaul.edu) is an assistant professor in the management department at DePaul University s Kellstadt Graduate School of Business. Dierdorff received his PhD in industrial/organizational psychology from North Carolina State University. His research areas include work analysis, training and development, and performance evaluation.

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