Recovery Strategy for the Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Boreal Population, in Canada. Woodland Caribou, Boreal Population

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1 PROPOSED Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series Recovery Strategy for the Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Boreal Population, in Canada Woodland Caribou, Boreal Population 2011

2 Recommended citation: Environment Canada Recovery Strategy for the Woodland Caribou, Boreal population (Rangifer tarandus caribou) in Canada [Proposed]. Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series. Environment Canada, Ottawa. vi + 55 pp. For copies of the recovery strategy, or for additional information on species at risk, including COSEWIC Status Reports, residence descriptions, action plans, and other related recovery documents, please visit the Species at Risk Public Registry ( Cover illustration : Courtesy Dr. Crichton Également disponible en français sous le titre «Programme de rétablissement du Caribou des bois (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Population boréale, au Canada» Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the Minister of the Environment, All rights reserved. ISBN Catalogue no. Content (excluding the illustrations) may be used without permission, with appropriate credit to the source.

3 PREFACE The federal, provincial, and territorial government signatories under the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk (1996) agreed to establish complementary legislation and programs that provide for effective protection of species at risk throughout Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (S.C. 2002, c.29) (SARA), the federal competent ministers are responsible for the preparation of recovery strategies for listed Extirpated, Endangered, and Threatened species and are required to report on progress within five years. The Minister of the Environment is the competent Minister for this recovery strategy. Environment Canada s Canadian Wildlife Service, led the development of this recovery strategy. Seven provinces, two territories, one Aboriginal government (Tlicho), four Wildlife Management Boards and Parks Canada Agency contributed information for this recovery strategy. In addition, a process was undertaken with Aboriginal knowledge holders within and adjacent to the distribution of boreal caribou, to ensure Traditional Knowledge informed the recovery strategy. Similarly, sessions were carried out with 169 Aboriginal communities and 232 stakeholder groups to gain input on key elements of the recovery strategy. Landscape-level planning will be essential for the successful recovery of boreal caribou. Provinces and territories have the primary responsibility for management of lands and wildlife within boreal caribou range, and therefore have the jurisdictional mandate for recovery and conservation of the Boreal population of Woodland Caribou. In the Northwest Territories, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada also have a key role. Success in the recovery of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of many different constituencies that will be involved in implementing the directions set out in this strategy and will not be achieved by Environment Canada, or any other jurisdiction alone. All Canadians are invited to join in supporting and implementing this strategy for the benefit of the Boreal population of Woodland Caribou and Canadian society as a whole. This recovery strategy will be followed by one or more action plans that will provide information on recovery measures that will be taken by Environment Canada and other jurisdictions and/or organizations involved in the conservation of the species, for the survival and recovery of the Boreal population of Woodland Caribou to be achieved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Environment Canada would like to express its gratitude to the Aboriginal people who shared their knowledge about boreal caribou in support of recovering this species. Through sessions with Aboriginal traditional knowledge holders and Aboriginal communities, relevant knowledge with respect to boreal caribou life history, habitat use, population status, threats facing the species and conservation measures was received to support the development of this national recovery strategy. Aboriginal people consistently indicated that conservation of boreal caribou is essential, as this species is integral to the culture, identity and survival of their communities. Detailed local knowledge received will also be made available to support local and regional-level i

4 action planning for boreal caribou, where consent for such use was granted. Environment Canada appreciates that so many Aboriginal people were willing to share their knowledge and experiences to help in the recovery of this species. Gratitude is also extended to all the federal, provincial and territorial jurisdictions as well as Wildlife Management Boards and the Tlicho government, with management responsibility for this species, for generously sharing their information and expertise necessary to develop this recovery strategy. The Boreal Caribou Working Group, comprised of Environment Canada staff across Canada, contributed extensively to consultation and Aboriginal traditional knowledge gathering efforts carried out to inform the development of this recovery strategy, as well as to the compilation of materials and drafting of the recovery strategy. Appreciation is extended to Environment Canada s Wildlife and Landscape Science Directorate, the Boreal Caribou Science Management Committee and Boreal Caribou science advisors, for their extensive efforts and contribution to the recovery strategy through the provision of the 2011 Scientific Assessment to Inform the Identification of Critical Habitat for Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Boreal Population, in Canada. Acknowledgement and thanks is given to all other parties that provided advice and input used to help inform the development of this recovery strategy including the Species at Risk Advisory Committee (SARAC), various Aboriginal organizations and individuals who advised on the consultation process and materials, and stakeholders who participated in consultation meetings. ii

5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This recovery strategy focuses on the Boreal population of Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), hereafter referred to as boreal caribou, assessed in May 2002 as Threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Boreal caribou are distributed across Canada throughout seven provinces and two territories, extending from the northeast corner of Yukon Territory east to Labrador and south to Lake Superior. Boreal caribou are distributed broadly throughout the boreal forest region. They require large range areas comprised of continuous tracts of undisturbed habitat rich in mature to old-growth coniferous forest, lichens, muskegs, peatlands, and upland or hilly areas. Large range areas with suitable quality habitat allow boreal caribou to disperse across the landscape when conditions are unfavourable (e.g. natural wildfire disturbance, anthropogenic disturbance) and to maintain low population densities throughout the range to reduce the risk of predation. Due to the specific life history characteristics they possess, boreal caribou are limited in their potential to recover from rapid, severe population declines. Boreal caribou are primarily threatened by a reduction in the availability and suitability of habitat necessary to carry out the life processes necessary for their survival and reproduction. Threats, primarily habitat alteration (i.e. habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation) from both anthropogenic and natural stressors, and predation have resulted in local population declines throughout their distribution. Threats are closely interrelated and act cumulatively to have direct or indirect impacts on boreal caribou and their habitat. Recovery of boreal caribou is technically and biologically feasible across Canada. The long-term recovery goal for boreal caribou is to achieve self-sustaining local populations throughout their distribution in Canada to the extent possible. Achieving this recovery goal is a very long process, particularly as boreal caribou exist in mature boreal forest ecosystems that are established over many decades that take many years to recover from disturbance. To guide recovery efforts for the first 50 years, the population and distribution objective for boreal caribou throughout their distribution in Canada is to: o Maintain the current status of the 17 existing self-sustaining local populations; o Achieve self-sustaining status for 12 local populations that are not self-sustaining, to ensure representivity of ecological conditions and maintain connectivity across Canada; and, o Stabilize the remaining 28 local populations that are not self-sustaining. The critical habitat necessary to support the population and distribution objectives for the recovery and survival of boreal caribou has been identified. For each local population, the identification of critical habitat for boreal caribou is described by the i) location of habitat, ii) amount of habitat, and iii) type of habitat. Performance indicators have been identified and will be used to measure progress towards achieving this recovery goal. iii

6 The recovery of boreal caribou requires actions that vary by individual local population range. This recovery strategy provides broad strategies and general approaches to meet the recovery objectives, which will be used to inform the development of subsequent action plans and guide the implementation of recovery actions. The suite of potential recovery actions will be governed by local opportunities and constraints, and the level of urgency for a given recovery action will be determined by local population and habitat conditions. This recovery strategy will be followed by one or more action plans that will provide information on recovery measures that should be taken by Environment Canada, other federal departments, provinces and territories, jurisdictions, wildlife management boards, Aboriginal peoples, stakeholders, landowners and other organizations involved in the conservation, survival and recovery of boreal caribou. Success in recovering boreal caribou will depend on the commitment, collaboration and cooperation among all interested parties. iv

7 RECOVERY FEASIBILITY SUMMARY Recovery of the Boreal population of Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) (hereafter referred to as boreal caribou) is considered to be both technically and biologically feasible across the species range based on the following four criteria outlined in the draft SARA Policies (Government of Canada, 2009): 1. Individuals of the wildlife species that are capable of reproduction are available now or in the foreseeable future to sustain the population or improve its abundance. Yes. According to current best estimates, there are approximately 32,000 1 individuals, in at least 57 local populations across nine provinces and territories in Canada, capable of successful reproduction that are available to improve local population growth rates and abundance (Environment Canada, 2011b). 2. Sufficient suitable habitat is available to support the species or could be made available through habitat management or restoration. Yes. Some boreal caribou local populations have sufficient undisturbed habitat within their ranges. For other local populations sufficient suitable habitat is currently unavailable to support local populations at a self-sustaining level but could be made available through efforts to restore lost, degraded and/or fragmented habitat. 3. The primary threats to the species or its habitat (including threats outside Canada) can be avoided or mitigated. Yes. The primary threat to most boreal caribou local populations is unnaturally high predation rates as a result of habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. These habitat alterations support conditions that favour higher alternate prey densities (e.g., moose, deer), resulting in increased predator populations (e.g., wolf) that in turn increase the risk of predation to boreal caribou. This threat can be avoided or mitigated through coordinated land use planning, and habitat restoration and management, in conjunction with predator/alternate prey management where local population conditions warrant such action. 4. Recovery techniques exist to achieve the population and distribution objectives or can be expected to be developed within a reasonable timeframe. Yes. Recovery techniques are available (e.g., protection and management of boreal forest habitat, habitat restoration, and predator/alternate prey management) to achieve the population and distribution objectives for boreal caribou, although there is uncertainty with regard to the effectiveness of some of these techniques, as they have not yet under gone a sufficiently long trial period. 1 Population estimate that is based on the total (24,459) for all local populations for which a population size is included in the Environment Canada 2011 Scientific Assessment of Critical Habitat for Boreal Caribou plus an estimate of 5800 animals in NWT and 1284 animals in ON that were reported in the 2008 Environment Canada Scientific Review. Use of the 2008 estimates for NWT and ON was necessary since range delineations for local populations in NWT and ON were revised in the 2011 report and corresponding size estimates for these new range delineations are not yet available. v

8 TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... i EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... iii RECOVERY FEASIBILITY SUMMARY... v 1. COSEWIC Species Assessement Information Species Status Information Species Information Species Description Population and Distribution Needs of the Boreal Caribou Threats Threat Assessment Description of Threats Population and Distribution Objectives Broad Strategies and General Approaches to Meet Objectives Actions Already Completed or Currently Underway Strategic Direction for Recovery Narrative to Support the Recovery Planning Table Critical Habitat Describing Critical Habitat for Boreal Caribou Identification of the Critical Habitat for Boreal Caribou Schedule of Studies Activities Likely to Result in the Destruction of Critical Habitat Measuring Progress Statement on Action Plans Coordinated Approach Range Specific Actions References APPENDIX A: Effects on the Environment and Other Species APPENDIX B: Boreal Caribou Population Information APPENDIX C: Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge Summary Reports on Boreal Cariobu APPENDIX D: Scientic Assessments of Critical Habitat for Boreal Caribou APPENDIX E: Identifying Management Thresholds APPENDIX F: Critical Habitat Factsheets vi

9 1. COSEWIC SPECIES ASSESSEMENT INFORMATION Date of Assessment: May 2002 Common Name (population): Woodland caribou (Boreal population) Scientific Name: Rangifer tarandus caribou COSEWIC Status: Threatened Reason for Designation: A widespread population ranging across the boreal forests of northern Canada. Populations have decreased throughout most of the range. Threatened from habitat loss and increased predation, the latter possibly facilitated by human activities. Canadian Occurrence: Northwest Territories (extending into Yukon), British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland-Labrador. COSEWIC Status History: The Boreal population was designated Threatened in May Status re-examined and confirmed in May SPECIES STATUS INFORMATION Boreal caribou are listed as Threatened federally under Canada s Species at Risk Act (SARA), based on an observed, estimated, inferred or suspected reduction in population size of > 30% over three generations (approximately 20 years). Boreal caribou have been provincially and territorially ranked throughout their distribution (see Table 1). Boreal caribou are endemic to Canada, and are distributed throughout nine provinces and territories including British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Labrador, Northwest Territories, and Yukon Territory. Boreal caribou have not been ranked globally by NatureServe. Table 1. List and description of Canadian status and provincial designations for boreal caribou. Canadian Status SARA Schedule 1 (Threatened) Provincial Designation NT Not Listed YT Not Listed BC Red Listed (Threatened Endangered) AB Threatened SK Not Listed MB Threatened ON Threatened QC Vulnerable (Special Concern Threatened) LB - Threatened 1

10 3. SPECIES INFORMATION There are four existing subspecies of caribou in Canada including the Peary Caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi), Barren-ground Caribou (R. t. groenlandicus), Grant s Caribou (R. t. granti), and Woodland Caribou (Banfield, 1974). A fifth subspecies, the Dawson s Caribou (R. t. dawsoni), which occurred in Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte Islands) is extinct. Each subspecies displays differences in morphology, behaviour, and areas of geographic occurrence. Based on the classification system used by COSEWIC in its 2002 assessment there are five geographically distinct populations of the forest-dwelling Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou): Northern Mountain population (Special Concern), Southern Mountain population (Threatened), Boreal population (Threatened), Atlantic-Gaspésie population (Endangered), and the insular Newfoundland population (Not at Risk). This recovery strategy focuses on the Boreal population of Woodland Caribou. 3.1 Species Description Like all Woodland Caribou, boreal caribou are a medium-sized ( m shoulder height and weighing kg) member of the deer family (Cervidae) (Thomas and Gray, 2002). Adults have a dark brown coat with a creamy white neck, mane, shoulder stripe, underbelly, underside of the tail, and patch above each hoof (Banfield, 1974;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). A distinctive characteristic of all caribou is large crescent-shaped hooves that provide flotation in snow and soft ground (e.g., peatlands), and assist in digging through snow to forage on lichens and other ground vegetation (Thomas and Gray, 2002). Antlers of boreal caribou are flattened, compact, and relatively dense. As a unique feature among the deer family, both male and female caribou bear antlers during part of the year, although some females may have only one antler or no antlers at all (Thomas and Gray, 2002;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). In comparison to Barren-ground Caribou, boreal caribou antlers are thicker and broader, and legs and faces are longer. 2

11 3.2 Population and Distribution Boreal caribou are forest-dwelling, sedentary caribou that occur only in Canada and are distributed broadly across the boreal forest region (Thomas and Gray, 2002). They occur in nine provinces and territories including: British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Labrador, Northwest Territories, and Yukon Territory (Figure 1). The Canadian range stretches from the northeast corner of Yukon Territory, east to Labrador, and extends as far south as Lake Superior (Environment Canada, 2008;Environment Canada, 2011b). Across Canada, the southern limit of boreal caribou distribution has progressively receded northward since the early 1900s (Figure 1), a trend that continues today (Festa-Bianchet et al., 2011;Schaefer, 2003;Thomas and Gray, 2002). Aboriginal traditional knowledge similarly indicates that boreal caribou populations have moved northward as a result of the loss of habitat in the south (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Figure 1. Distribution (i.e., extent of occurrence) of boreal caribou in Canada. The current distribution of boreal caribou is shown in green. The estimated southern extent of historical Woodland Caribou distribution is indicated by the dashed line. 3

12 Boreal caribou are distributed across at least 57 local populations (Figure 2) (Environment Canada, 2011b). Figure 2. Geographic ranges of all 57 known local populations of boreal caribou in Canada. 4

13 Of the 57 boreal caribou local populations, 17 are self-sustaining, 33 are not self-sustaining, and for the remaining 7, the local population status is as likely as not self-sustaining (Environment Canada, 2011b) (Figure 3). Figure 3. Integrated risk assessment map demonstrating the current likelihood of selfsustainability for boreal caribou local populations in Canada. Precise enumeration of boreal caribou local population size is a challenge, particularly in certain areas, due to the large range areas that boreal caribou occupy (often over thousands of square kilometers), the low densities at which they occur (making survey from aircraft challenging), and their relatively solitary habits (Callaghan et al., 2010;Environment Canada., 2008). Aboriginal traditional knowledge shows that boreal caribou are generally found in small groups of fewer than 15 individuals (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Typically, boreal caribou form relatively mixed-sex groups; however, during calving periods females are generally solitary (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Based on the best available information, the current overall number of boreal caribou in Canada is estimated to be 5

14 approximately 32,000 2 individuals (Environment Canada, 2011b). Appendix B outlines the current population size and trend information for each of the 57 local populations as provided by jurisdictions (Environment Canada, 2011b). The geographic area a local population of boreal caribou occupies and moves within is referred to as a local population range or boreal caribou range. A local population range is a function of both the size of the area and the habitat condition. Boreal caribou local population ranges encompass an area that is large enough, with the necessary habitat conditions to support their life processes (e.g. calving, rutting, wintering etc.) and allow for a local population to be selfsustaining 3 (Environment Canada, 2011b). Boreal caribou local population ranges have been delineated based on the type and quantity of data available, and have been categorized along a data continuum from low to high quality (Environment Canada, 2011b). A local population s use of range may change over time as a result of variation in ecological conditions (e.g., vegetation change as a result of fire, disturbance or range overutilization) and patterns of human disturbance (e.g., industrial development) affecting the landscape. Based on individual movements and geographical influences, range patterns of boreal caribou local populations are either: a) discrete, with a local population occupying a clearly defined range area (e.g., Lake Superior shoreline of Ontario, Charlevoix in Quebec); or b) continuous, with a local population dispersed over a large area characterized by common biophysical conditions (e.g., boreal taiga in the Northwest Territories. To be self-sustaining, a local population depends on an adequate habitat supply within the entirety of its range. As habitat condition changes in response to environmental conditions (e.g., large burns from wildfire) or human activity (e.g., tree removal), the habitat use within a range of a local population may vary. Local populations have been identified as the appropriate ecological unit for conservation and management of boreal caribou (Thomas and Gray, 2002). The ranges of all known local populations of boreal caribou have been mapped (Figure 2), based on provincial and territorial observational and telemetry data, and biophysical analyses (Environment Canada, 2011b). In many cases there is limited information on which to base the local population delineation and therefore delineations are considered conservation units that are to be confirmed and refined over time (Environment Canada, 2011b). 2 Population estimate that is based on the total (24,459) for all local populations for which a population size is included in the Environment Canada 2011 Scientific Assessment of Critical Habitat for Boreal Caribou plus an estimate of 5800 animals in NWT and 1284 animals in ON that were reported in the 2008 Environment Canada Scientific Review. Use of the 2008 estimates for NWT and ON was necessary since range delineations for local populations in NWT and ON were revised in the 2011 report and corresponding size estimates for these new range delineations are not yet available. 3 Self-sustaining for boreal caribou means a local population of boreal caribou that on average demonstrates stable or positive population growth (more births than deaths; λ 1.0) over 20 years, and is large enough to withstand random events (e.g., severe weather) and human-caused pressures, and persist over 50 years, without the need for management intervention (e.g., predator management or transplants from other populations). 6

15 3.3 Needs of the Boreal Caribou Habitat and biological needs Boreal caribou require large range areas comprised of continuous tracts of undisturbed habitat. Mature to old-growth coniferous forest (e.g. jack pine, black spruce) with abundant lichens, or muskegs and peatlands intermixed with upland/hilly areas (Darby and Pruitt Jr., 1984;Brown et al., 1986;Bradshaw et al., 1995;Stuart-Smith et al., 1997;Rettie and Messier, 2000;Courtois, 2003;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports , 2011). These large range areas reduce the risk of predation by allowing boreal caribou to maintain low population densities throughout the range and by allowing them to avoid areas of high predation risk, such as areas with high densities of alternate prey species (e.g., moose and white-tailed deer) and predators (e.g., wolf and bear) (Rettie and Messier, 2001;Brown et al., 2003; also see Section 4.2). Aboriginal traditional knowledge identified that boreal caribou use a variety of habitats, such as muskegs and other bodies of water, old mature forests, and islands in order to avoid predators (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Boreal caribou select habitat that provides food, particularly terrestrial and arboreal lichens, during late winter and early spring, and avoid early stage successional forests and recently disturbed areas (Schaefer and W.O.Pruitt, 1991;Stuart-Smith et al., 1997;Rettie and Messier, 2000;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ) that have poor feeding options, impede movement and attract other ungulates (Whitefeather Forest, 2006). In order to access forage during winters with deep or crusted snow, boreal caribou require habitat that has arboreal lichens and shallower snow (such as mature coniferous stands with closed canopies and upland/hilly areas exposed to wind), where it is easier to dig for ground lichens (Vandal and Barrette, 1985;Thomas and Armbruster, 1996;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Boreal caribou have specific habitat requirements during calving and post-calving periods. To calve, pregnant cows travel to isolated, relatively predator-free areas with nutritious forage available, such as islands in lakes, peatlands or muskegs, lakeshores and forests (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Unavailable, inadequate or degraded habitat affects the reproductive success of females as well as the survival of calves, and can result in population decline (Thomas and Gray, 2002). Boreal caribou shift the use of their range in response to various natural processes (e.g., forest fire, food availability, weather conditions) and human activities (e.g., disturbance from development, logging, recreation) (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ;Environment Canada, 2011b). For example, any mature and old-growth forest stands lost to fire or tree removal practices will result in the degradation of suitable habitat. In response to such changing environmental conditions, as habitat becomes unfavourable boreal caribou will shift within their range. Over time, the disturbed area will recover and may again become suitable for use by boreal caribou. Connectivity between boreal caribou ranges enables immigration and emigration between local populations (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ;Racey and Armstrong, 2000), to maintain or increase genetic diversity (McLoughlin et al., 2004; Pither et al., 2006). Studies in Quebec 7

16 have demonstrated that isolation of local populations has resulted in a 20% reduction in genetic diversity (Courtois et al., 2003). Maintaining genetic diversity is important to the resilience of a local population to environmental stressors such as disease and provides the adaptive capacity of local populations to changes in environmental conditions such as climate change. Connectivity also provides potential movement corridors to facilitate response to changing conditions caused by climate change and is one of the main adaptive management approaches for wildlife species. Boreal caribou encounter a wide variety of ecological conditions across their distribution. Local population ranges that represent the full ecological gradient are necessary to capture local adaptations that arise from adaptive variation. This allows for maintenance of the evolutionary potential of the species and accounts for the full range of ecological interactions a boreal caribou can have within the full range of ecological settings (Redford et al., 2011) Limiting factors Boreal caribou possess certain life history characteristics that limit their potential to recover from rapid, severe population declines. As a primary anti-predator survival strategy, boreal caribou spatially separate themselves from predators and alternate prey, maintaining low population densities across their range (Bergerud, 1988;Johnson et al., 2001;Bergerud, 1996;Environment Canada., 2008). Accordingly, continuous tracts of undisturbed habitat of suitable quality (i.e. with the necessary biophysical attributes to support foraging, calving, etc) must be made available to ensure self-sustaining local populations. Boreal caribou have a low reproductive output relative to other ungulates. Females typically do not produce young until three years of age and then have only one calf per year (Bergerud, 2000). In addition, while all age classes of boreal caribou are vulnerable to predation, calf mortality can be especially high, particularly within the first thirty days after birth (Bergerud and Elliot, 1986). In most cases predation is the main proximate factor limiting boreal caribou population growth, since the survival of calves to one year of age is usually low and is often insufficient to compensate for annual adult mortality (e.g.,bergerud, 1974;Stuart-Smith et al., 1997). In addition to predation, calves may succumb to poor nutritional condition, abandonment, inclement weather, or accidents. Small local populations with few adult females (and hence few births) and low calf survival have a low potential for population growth (Bergerud, 1980;Bergerud, 2000). In addition to being affected by reproductive and mortality rates related to their age distribution, small populations can be disproportionately affected by chance events (e.g., environmental events such as winter icing or heavy snowfalls, wildfire, disease). Consequently, population growth is likely to be highly variable in small populations, with an increased probability of extirpation (Caughley, 1994). 8

17 4. THREATS 4.1 Threat Assessment There are a variety of threats that directly and/or indirectly affect local populations of boreal caribou and their habitat. A summary of these threats and their level of concern is provided in the table below (Table 2). Table 2. Threat Assessment Table for Woodland Caribou, Boreal Population Threat Habitat Loss or Degradation Habitat Alteration (Loss, Degradation or Fragmentation) as a Result of Human Land-use Activities Habitat Alteration (Loss, Degradation or Fragmentation) as a Result of Natural Processes Level of Concern 1 Extent Occurrence Frequency Severity 2 Causal Certainty 3 High Medium Natural Processes or Activities Widespread across Canadian range Widespread across Canadian range Predation High Widespread across Canadian range Parasites & Disease Biological Resource Use Hunting Medium Localized across Canadian range. Climate and Natural Disasters Climate Change & Severe Weather Disturbance or Harm Noises & Light Disturbance Current Continuous High High Current Recurrent Moderate High Current Continuous High High Low Unknown Anticipated Unknown Low Low Medium Low-Med Widespread across Canadian range Localized across Canadian range Current Seasonal Moderate Medium Anticipated Unknown Unknown Low-Med Current Recurrent Unknown Low 9

18 Threat Level of Concern 1 Extent Occurrence Frequency Severity 2 Causal Certainty 3 Accidental Mortality Vehicle Collisions Low Localized across Canadian range Current Recurrent Low Low Pollution Pollution Low Localized across Canadian range Unknown Unknown Unknown Low Level of Concern: signifies that managing the threat is of (high, medium or low) concern for the recovery of the species, consistent with the population and distribution objectives. This criterion considers the assessment of all the information in the table. 2 Severity: reflects the population-level effect (High: very large population-level effect, Moderate, Low, Unknown). 3 Causal certainty: reflects the degree of evidence that is known for the threat (High: available evidence strongly links the threat to stresses on population viability; Medium: there is a correlation between the threat and population viability e.g. expert opinion; Low: the threat is assumed or plausible). Many of these threats are related and may interact, in which case they can have cumulative impacts on boreal caribou or their habitat that may not be evident when threats are examined individually (Weclaw and Hudson, 2004;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports , 2011). Additionally, the impacts of threats on the size and distribution of boreal caribou local populations have a lag effect, which can take years to manifest (Vors et al., 2007). 4.2 Description of Threats The following threats are described in order of the most to the least significant in terms of the level of concern for their management. Threat 1 - Habitat Alteration (Loss, Degradation or Fragmentation) as a Result of Human Land-use Activities Habitat alteration occurs when changes are made on the landscape that adversely impacts the ecosystem, either temporarily or permanently, reducing overall function. Habitat loss is the change to a landscape, resulting in areas with no current or immediate future value to boreal caribou (e.g., conversion to agriculture, development of industrial facilities) whereas habitat degradation implies a reduced but not total loss of habitat value for boreal caribou (e.g., reduction in the availability or quality of boreal caribou habitat following timber harvesting or seismic line development). Habitat fragmentation is the dissection of habitat by human-made linear features (e.g., roads, geophysical exploration lines, pipelines, hydroelectric corridors) that may negatively affect how boreal caribou use habitat. 10

19 Aboriginal traditional knowledge and western science identify disturbance primarily associated with the following human land-use activities as having a negative effect on boreal caribou local populations across Canada: forestry; oil and gas exploration and development; mining exploration and development; and hydro-electric development. These activities affect boreal caribou through a combination of direct and functional habitat loss, decreased habitat quality (i.e. habitat degradation), and development of linear features such as roads and seismic lines (i.e. habitat fragmentation) (Thomas and Gray, 2002;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Boreal caribou are at greater risk of survival and tend to avoid associated industrial infrastructure such as roads, timber harvest cut-blocks, pipelines, oil and gas well sites, and geophysical exploration lines up to 500m (Environment Canada, 2011b). These developments reduce the suitability of adjacent habitat, increase rates of predation, increase access to the land for hunting opportunities and can act as barriers to boreal caribou movement (Chubbs et al., 1993;Smith et al., 2000;Dyer et al., 2001;Lander, 2006;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ;Environment Canada, 2011b). The effects of landscape alteration may reduce the viability of a boreal caribou local population through the reduction of habitat quality and quantity, possibly leading to a reduction in its range, and potentially resulting in its extirpation. Threat 2 - Predation Across most of their distribution, human-induced habitat alterations have caused an imbalance in predator-prey relationships resulting in unnaturally high predation rates. This is the major factor affecting the viability of boreal caribou populations (Bergerud, 1988;Stuart-Smith et al., 1997;Rettie and Messier, 1998;Schaefer et al., 1999;James and Stuart-Smith, 2000;Wittmer et al., 2005; Boreal Caribou ATK Reports )). Aboriginal traditional knowledge and western science identify wolves (Canis lupus) and bears (Ursus spp.) as the primary predators of boreal caribou, both of which have increased in numbers across the country (Bergerud, 1988;Edmonds, 1988;Seip, 1992;Boertje et al., 1996;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). However, in some parts of Canada, cougar (Puma concolor), coyotes (Canis latrans), lynx (Lynx canadensis), and eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus and Aquila chrysaetos) have also been identified as predators of boreal caribou, particularly calves (Thomas and Gray, 2002;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Human-caused habitat alterations have been shown to facilitate travel by predators and hence can negatively affect boreal caribou by increasing the functional abundance, distribution and hunting efficiency of species that prey on caribou (James and Stuart-Smith, 2000;Neufeld, 2006;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Additionally, in boreal caribou ranges with habitat alterations that provide favourable conditions for prey species such as deer (Odocoileus spp) and moose (Alces alces), predators such as wolves can increase in number and have the potential to significantly reduce or even eliminate local boreal caribou populations as caribou are taken opportunistically (Seip, 1991;Seip, 1992;Courtois and Ouellet, 2007;Wittmer et al., 2005;Courbin et al., 2008;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). 11

20 In addition to deer and moose, Aboriginal traditional knowledge identified elk (Cervus canadensis), bison (Bison bison), and beaver (Castor canadensis) as other prey species that predators of boreal caribou commonly hunt and that have increased within the distribution of boreal caribou (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Threat 3 Habitat Alteration (Loss, Degradation or Fragmentation) as a Result of Natural Processes Forest fires are required for boreal forest regeneration and have historically played a significant role in the size and distribution of boreal caribou local populations throughout their distribution (Thomas and Gray, 2002). Natural processes such as forest fires can directly alter habitat, making it unsuitable for boreal caribou (e.g., loss of mature conifer stands, loss of lichens and other forage plants, barriers to movement) (Environment Canada, 2011b). Aboriginal traditional knowledge indicates that boreal caribou generally do not return to burned areas for several decades until the forest is old enough to support lichens and other food sources, although they may make limited use of burned areas to feed on new growth (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Historically, when a forest fire occurred, boreal caribou would shift their use of habitat from the burned areas to areas that are more suitable. However, with the increase of industrial exploration and development throughout their range, there are fewer available suitable areas into which boreal caribou can move. Forest fires are therefore considered a threat to boreal caribou recovery even though they are a natural component of the boreal forest ecosystem. In some areas, forest fires have been reported as occurring more frequently than in the past (Whitefeather Forest, 2006;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Threat 4 Hunting Hunting has contributed to the decline of boreal caribou (Kelsall, 1968;Bergerud, 1967;Bergerud, 1974;Bergerud, 1978;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Incidental harvest of boreal caribou (when they overlap seasonally with legally hunted migratory caribou ecotypes) and illegal hunting of boreal caribou are of concern in several areas, and may be contributing to population declines or preventing recovery in some cases (Environment Canada, 2011a). Although the extent of hunting is poorly understood in most areas, analyses of historical population trends, data from radio-collared animals, and current demographic information suggest that hunting remains a significant component of adult female caribou mortality and hence is a primary threat in some local populations (Dzus, 2001;Schmelzer et al., 2004). Hunting of boreal caribou is facilitated by the construction of roads and other linear features and by the use of off-road vehicles that enable access to previously inaccessible areas (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Moreover, it was highlighted by Aboriginal traditional knowledge and in Aboriginal community meetings that technological advances in hunting tools (e.g., high-powered rifles and scopes) and in methods used to locate and access hunting sites (e.g., GPS, satellite tracking, aircraft, snowmobiles, trucks) have facilitated the chase of boreal caribou and have resulted in a greater number of individuals being hunted (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ;Environment Canada, 2011a). 12

21 Threat 5 - Climate Change & Severe Weather Climate change has been identified by Aboriginal traditional knowledge holders and western scientists as a potential threat to boreal caribou and their habitat. Both groups indicate that there are many uncertainties surrounding the impacts of climate change and how climate change may interact with other threats. Greater weather variability and severe weather events which are expected to increase with climate change, are likely to increase the frequency and severity of wildfires and cause more freeze-thaw cycles, freezing rain, deep snow, hot summer temperatures, and changes in the forest composition and food supply (Thomas and Gray, 2002;Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). In some areas, a shift in the timing and length of seasons, with earlier spring thaws and later freeze-ups, has been observed by many Aboriginal knowledge holders (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Climate change will likely lead to changes in habitat that allow deer and other prey species to expand into boreal caribou range, increasing predation and facilitating the spread of disease. Climate change may result in habitat change for boreal caribou, due to a northward shift in boreal forest composition and allowing forest insects, which cause tree mortality (e.g., mountain pine beetle), to increase their distribution (Johnston, 2009;Johnston, 2010). Other Threats Other threats that are a low level of concern include: Noise and Light Disturbance: Noise and light disturbance results in short-term behavioural and physiological responses of individual boreal caribou including a startle response, elevated heart rate, and production of glucocorticoids. Sustained or repeated disturbance can result in avoidance of areas and the reduction in use of suitable habitat (Sapolsky, 1992;Creel et al., 2002). Parasites and Disease: Viral, parasitic, and bacterial diseases can affect individual boreal caribou and may have effects at the population level in certain parts of the country, although it is not thought to be one of the major threats affecting boreal caribou at the national level. Vehicle Collisions: In some areas boreal caribou are vulnerable to mortality from vehicle or rail collisions (Brown and Hobson, 1998); however, on a national scale, vehicle collisions are not thought to pose a major threat to boreal caribou recovery (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ). Pollution: The threat of pollution (e.g., from oil and gas, chemical spraying for forestry, and hydro) was raised as a concern at several Aboriginal community meetings and by Aboriginal traditional knowledge holders. Very little is known about the severity of this threat to the recovery of boreal caribou. 13

22 5. POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OBJECTIVES The national population of boreal caribou is made up of 57 local populations distributed across Canada (Figure 2). Local populations of boreal caribou and their range areas are the fundamental units of conservation and management for boreal caribou recovery planning and actions (Thomas and Gray, 2002). Aboriginal traditional knowledge supports the continued presence of all boreal caribou populations across Canada, now and into the future, because all animals are connected to each other and caribou are important to the balance of nature and for their role in the ecosystem. Loss of boreal caribou will affect all other wildlife. Best available western science states that conservation of a species is achieved by maintaining multiple population units across a species natural range, in representative ecological settings, with replicate populations in each setting that are self-sustaining, genetically robust, ecologically functional, and resilient to climate and other changes (Environment Canada, 2011b). Recovery extends beyond the individual local populations. Connectivity between local populations is an essential element of the achievement of a secure conservation status for boreal caribou. Connectivity of ranges will ensure that local populations benefit from and contribute to the conservation of neighbouring local populations by allowing for immigration and emigration and maintaining or increasing genetic diversity. Maintaining genetic diversity is important to the resilience of a local population as described in Section 3.3. Connectivity allows wide ranging, mammals to adapt to changes in their natural environment (e.g. climate change), recognizing that a contiguous population does not mean that each range must be physically connected to other ranges. It does mean that the distances between ranges should not be so large that no movement would occur and that the condition of the landscape between ranges should allow caribou to move through it with a reasonable likelihood of survival for the purposes of gene flow and rescue effects. Caribou encounter a wide variety of ecological conditions across their distribution. Local population ranges that represent the full ecological gradient are necessary to capture local adaptations that arise from adaptive variation. This allows for maintenance of the evolutionary potential of the species and accounts for the full range of ecological interactions a boreal caribou can have within the full range of ecological settings (Redford et al., 2011). There is a wide variance in the present condition and land use situation of each local population range, both ecologically and with respect to the decision-making processes, activities on the landscape, etc that will have to be modified in order to first stabilize the population, and then move toward full recovery. Extensive lead time is likely needed to both alter ecological processes detrimental to boreal caribou triggered decades ago, and institute changes to management frameworks and ongoing land use that in some cases may be subject to very longterm legal agreements, tenure, rights, etc. While the details of each particular case will be more precisely illuminated in the SARA Action Plan process, at this strategic level it is necessary to acknowledge that instant results are not achievable particularly in some ranges but, will always be pursued to the extent possible in that situation. 14

23 The long-term recovery goal for boreal caribou is to achieve self-sustaining local populations throughout their distribution in Canada to the extent possible 4. Boreal caribou exist in mature boreal forest ecosystems that are established over many decades, and in turn take many years to recover from disturbance. The loss of habitat and the increase in predators and alternate prey populations in caribou ranges require time frames in excess of 50 to 100 years to reverse. As such, the population and distribution objectives stated in this strategy will be framed around the first 50 years of implementation that will assist in achieving the longterm recovery goal, whose ultimate attainment will likely take much longer. To guide recovery efforts for the first 50 years of the recovery process, the following are the population and distribution objectives: Across the distribution 5 of boreal caribou as noted in Figure 4: Maintain the current status of the 17 existing self-sustaining local populations (green local populations in Figure 4); Achieve self-sustaining status for 12 local populations that are not self-sustaining, to ensure representivity of ecological conditions and maintain connectivity across Canada (blue local populations in Figure 4); and, Stabilize the remaining 28 local populations that are not self-sustaining (grey local populations in Figure 4). 4 Current evidence supports the conclusion that the recovery of all local populations is technically and biologically feasible. However, there may be situations where recovery of a particular local population proves to be, over time and through unforeseen circumstances, not biologically or technically feasible (see Definitions) and as such may affect the likelihood of achieving the population and distribution objectives for some individual local populations. 5 For the purposes of this strategy, boreal caribou distribution is the area that encompasses the geographic distribution of all local populations across Canada based on provincial and territorial distribution maps (Figure 2) developed from observation and telemetry data, local knowledge including Aboriginal traditional knowledge and biophysical analyses, at the time of the publishing of this strategy (Boreal Caribou ATK Reports ;Environment Canada, 2011b). 15

24 Figure 4: Population and distribution objectives as they apply to individual local populations Self-Sustaining Local Populations Maintenance of the population and range conditions that support these local populations is required to ensure the recovery of boreal caribou. Seventeen (17) local populations of boreal caribou have been assessed as self-sustaining (Figure 4 Green local populations) Non Self-Sustaining Local Populations Recovery of the forty (40) 6 non self-sustaining local populations requires a combination of coordinated habitat restoration and population management actions applied over time to return a local population to a normal state. Initial recovery steps are to stabilize local populations by halting the decline in population size. Stability is achieved when a local population trend is stable or increasing. In addition the size of the local population should be large enough to mitigate risk of quasi-extinction. 6 The seven (7) local populations with a status of as likely as not self-sustaining (Environment Canada, 2011b) are counted as not self-sustaining along with 33 not self-sustaining in this recovery strategy. 16