Meiosis & Sex. Sex = Meiosis + Syngamy. Sexual reproduction creates new combinations of alleles. Cells Arise From Preexisting Cells
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1 Meiosis & Sex Sexual reproduction creates new combinations of alleles. Cells Arise From Preexisting Cells I. Asexual (Mitotic) Reproduction a. Mitosis: production of two identical nuclei b. Cytokinesis: physical division of the cell into two II. Sexual (Meiotic) Reproduction a. Meiosis: production of four non-identical nuclei b. Cytokinesis: physical division of the cell c. Fertilization: fusion of two sex cells d. Syngamy: fusion of two nuclei Diploid cells have homologous pairs of : 1 set from mom, 1 set from dad. Homologous [Homologs]: same loci, maybe different alleles. Meiosis: Reductive Division Reduces Chromosome Number in Half Sex = Meiosis + Syngamy Meiosis has 2 consecutive divisions : Homologous pairs separate I: Sister chromatids separate Each division has a prophase, metaphase, anaphase and a telophase Meiosis: 2n 1n Diploid haploid Syngamy: 1n 2n Haploid diploid Heyer 1
2 Sexual Life Cycles Chromosomes Matched in Homologous Pairs (Homologs) Human somatic (body) cells 23 pairs = 46 Homolog = same size, shape, centromere, and genes Pairs #1-22 = Autosomes Both male and female Pair #23 = Sex Chromosomes Diploid life history (animals) Alternation of Generations (plants) Haploid life history (fungi) Determine gender XX = female, XY = male Human karyotype Somatic (body) cells are Diploid Gametes (sex cells) are Haploid Diploid (2n) Two of each kind of chromosome Humans 2n = 46 Haploid (n) One of each kind of chromosome Humans n = 23 Haploid gametes are produced by meiosis Male gamete = sperm Female gamete = egg (ovum) The human life cycle Prophase I Chromosomes condense Nuclear envelope dissolves Spindle forms Tetrads form of paired homologs 2 dyads 1 tetrad Crossing over homologous swap portions Metaphase I Homologous pairs line up on spindle equator Anaphase I Homologous pairs separate Chromosomes are still duplicated Heyer 2
3 Dyads connected at centromeres Tetrads connected at chiasmata (sites of crossing over) At anaphase I: chiasmata separate centromeres remain connected Telophase I Cytokinesis, but remain condensed 2 new daughter cells Both are now haploid, but with duplicated No DNA replication before next division I (in both cells from first meiotic division) Prophase II follows Telophase I Chromosomes already condensed from meiosis I Centromes duplicate, new spindle forms Metaphase II Chromosomes line up again Like metaphase of mitosis I (cont.) Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate Daughter unduplicated Telophase II Total of 4 haploid cells produced Mitosis & Meiosis Compared Mitosis Meiosis Mitosis separates chromatids in a single division event separates homologs I separates chromatids Mitosis makes clones, but meiosis changes the genome. Heyer 3
4 Spermatogenesis: one primary spermatocyte but Meiosis doesn t always create 4 cells. Oogenesis: one primary oocyte Sexual Reproduction Produces Genetic Variation Variation arises from I. Independent chromosome assortment in meiosis II. Crossing-over between homologous in meiosis III. Random process of fertilization 4 sperm 1 ovum + 2 polar bodies Homologous Chromosomes Can Carry Different Versions of Genes Meiosis creates a random subset of. Homologous come from different parents Different versions of same gene = Alleles Ex. Brown coat, white coat Different info on homologous Independent Assortment Homologs line up by chance in Metaphase I Results in many different possible chromosome combinations in gametes 2 n possible combinations (2 23 = >8 mill. for humans) creates new genomes 2 ways: New combinations of alleles on each chromosome. Crossing over New combinations of. Independent assortment Heyer 4
5 In division I, homologous pairs form tetrads and crossing over occurs. Crossing over occurs during early prophase I division I division I synapsis Early prophase I: Homologous (nonsister) chromatids aligned and linked by protein zipper complex (synaptonemal complex) Synaptonemal complex disappears when fully condense Crossing over chiasma Crossing over is highly organized, ensuring that homologous segments are traded. Outcomes of crossing over Recombinant Sister chromatids no longer identical. Each chromatid has alleles both from mom and from dad. Heyer 5
6 In division II, no-longer-identical sister chromatids are separated. In humans, typically 1 3 crossings-over per chromosome in a meiotic division. division II Dictyate oogenesis in mammals, birds, & chondrichthyes Arrested at Prophase I after synapsis, but before final condensation In humans from 20 weeks gestation until stimulated by menstrual cycle Arrested at Metaphase II until fertilization occurs Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure Errors in meiosis can lead to gametes with Aneuploidy (Abnormal number of ) Alteration of chromosome structure Aneuploidy Trisomy 21 = An extra copy of chrom. 21 Down Syndrome Most common birth defect Chance increases with age of mother Down syndrome Aberrations of Chromosome Structure Errors in Crossing-over Deletions and duplications Cat-cry syndrome, deletion in chrom 5 Translocation CML, most common of leukemia cancers Deletion and duplication Translocation of CML Heyer 6
7 Random Fertilization Fertilization is a random process A gamete from one individual unites with one from another individual Given that a man can produce 2 23 genetically different sperm, and a woman can produce 2 23 genetically different ova: One mating couple can produce a diploid zygote with any of >70 trillion combinations of! (2 23 x 2 23 ) (Not even counting variation from crossingover!) one pair of the 23 are sex Random fertilization determines sex of the zygote XX = female XY = male XY is NOT a homologous pair After fertilization, somatic cells reproduce asexually (mitotic divisions) Differentiation: all cells genetically identical, but with different gene expression Heyer 7
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