Chapter 3. The Time Problem. The University of Michigan

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1 Chapter 3 The Time Probem Russe M. Capp Trevor Mudge The University of Michigan The notion of time in Ada is necessary since the anguage is intended for use in programming embedded rea-time systems. In this chapter, we examine time reated issues in Ada and their reation to our approach to benchmarking. There are two aspects of the time probem area that must be considered in performance evauation. The first is a need for benchmark programs to evauate the timing reated features of the anguage. Secondy, the existence of timing support provides the basis for deveoping a method within the anguage for measuring benchmark execution times. In order to deveop an accurate and reiabe method for timing measurement, the support for timing provided by the anguage must be caibrated using benchmark programs. We discuss these two inter-reated areas of the time probem in the paragraphs beow, after first reviewing the notion of time present in Ada. 3.1 Ada Time Units There are severa entities in Ada that reate to time. The foowing ist of entities is reproduced from [o]: the data type TIME, objects of which type are used to hod an interna representation of an absoute point in time; the data type DURATION, objects of which type are used to hod vaues for intervas of time; the vaue DURATION SMALL which gives an indication of the smaest interva of time which can be represented in a program. It is required to be ess than or equa to 20 miiseconds, with a recommendation that it be as sma as 50 microseconds: the vaue SYSTEM TICK, which is defined as the basic system unit of time; a prede%ed package, CALENDAR, which provides functions to perform arithmetic on objects of type TIME or DURATION; Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 20 Voume X, Number 3

2 a predefined function, CLOCK, which returns a vaue of type TIME corresponding to the current time; the operation deay which aows a task to suspend itsef for a period of time. The first two items arc prcdcfined data types for representing either points in time or intervas of time. A point in time has severa components associated with it that represent various eves of precision in a time vaue, e.g., year, month, day, hour, minute, second, microsecond, etc. The type TIME is private, so the representation used shoud be hidden from the user. The mutipe eves of precision suggest, though, that the representation of a point in time may be more compex than a singe word vaue. Because of this, the overhead invoved in computations invoving vaues of type TIME wi be different and probaby greater than in the case of other predefined data types. The representation for an interva of time is simper. DURATION is a predefined fixed point type whose vaues are interpreted to be in seconds. Because it is a fixed point type, the vaues of objects of this type are mutipes of the vaue DURATION SMALL. This vaue, then, specifies the amount of the precision possibe in representing an interva of time. It is important to note, however, that the vaue of DURATION SMALL in no way impies performance of a system for time measurements or scheduing. The cock resoution is determined utimatey by the hardware. DURATION SMALL is chosen based on word size and convenience of representing a wide range of interva vaues with a reasonabe amount of precision. A simiar statement can be made regarding the timing environment avaiabe and the vaue SYS- TEM.TICK. The phrase basic system unit of time is not very specific, and one might think it refers to one of severa possibiities, e.g., time-sice interva, minimum deay vaue, CPU cock cyce, or hardware cock resoution, Severa compiers do use this vaue to indicate the resoution of the CLOCK function, but this is not aways the case. It is best to determine this resoution experimentay, as described in ater sections. The CALENDAR package contains subprograms to perform arithmetic on objects of types TIME and DURATION as. we as extract date components from an object of type TIME or combine such components into a singe TIME object. The CALENDAR package aso contains the CLOCK function. The CLOCK function returns a vaue based on some underying hardware cock or timer. The increment in time to the cock or timer is the resoution time of the system. If this increment is the same as the tick for the CLOCK function, it is aso the CLOCK resoution. If the execution overhead for evauating the CLOCK function is ess than its resoution, then successive cas to the CLOCK function may return the same resut. The deay operation aows scheduing and synchronization of tasks to be infuenced by time. Deays are specified with a time interva of type DURATION. A deay may suspend a task for an amount of time no,ess than that specified, or the deay may be used in conjunction with an entry ca or one or more accept statements. In the case of rendezvous reated deays, the deay specifies a bound on the time a caing or accepting task is aowed to wait for a specified rendezvous to begin. In any case, there are severa possibiities for the impementation of the deay operation. The LRM paces no imits on the ength of a deay, except that it ast at east as ong as the time interva specified. This situation gives an impementation a ot of freedom, and the particuar impementation strategy used can greaty affect a program s execution. Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 21 Voume X, Number 3

3 3.2 Timing Techniques There are many factors which come into pay when determining the method to be used for timing overhead and atencies in benchmark programs. The most important issue to address is the structuring of the bencbrnark code. It is necessary to ensure that the benchmark measures exacty what it is designed to measure. It is aso important that the timing environment be we understood, so that the desired accuracy and precision in the measurement can be obtained. Additionay, carefu examination of the resuts must be made, so that undesired effects from the hardware, operating system, or run-time system can be discounted. We discuss each of these areas in detai beow Feature Isoation In order to measure a atency time or overhead for a specific anguage feature or set of statements, it is necessary to subtract out any overhead for contro statements that aid in performing the measurement. In order to do this, the overhead of the contro statements must be measured separatey. This is done by textuay repeating the code for the test but omitting the feature or set of statements that are the target of the benchmark. Because the resoution of the timer is usuay greater than the time being measured, it is common for the benchmark code to incude oops around the features being measured so that they are repeated a arge number of times. The measured vaue is then divided by the number of iterations. The form of the overa benchmark, then, is made up of two oops: the test oop and the contro oop. This benchmarking technique has been referred to as the dua oop approach [3]. Athough this technique was designed for measuring anguage feature overhead, it can aso be used to measure running times for synthetic benchmarks and appications. The feature statement is simpy repaced by the statements that make up the appication being measured. This technique may not be necessary if the running time of the synthetic benchmark or appication is ong in comparison to the CLOCK resoution. If this is not the case, the dua oop approach provides a way to obtain more accuracy and precision in the measurement through the use of repetition with timed feature isoation. In order for dua oop coding approach to be successfu, it is important to ensure that the mcasurements it produces are vaid. The major factor to consider when designing the dua oop code is the effect of compier optimizations. Athough code optimizations are generay wecomed as a way to improve performance, they can aso invaidate a measurement made by using the dua oop approach. Techniques must be incorporated to prevent an optimizing compier from changing the program in any way that invaidates a measurement. The code generated for the test oop and contro oop must not be different, except for the quantity being measured. Of course, any optimizations to the actua feature being measured wecomed and and encouraged. Chapter 6 discusses possibe compier optimization% Chapter 7 provides exampes of the dua oop code structure used in the PIWG benchmarking suite Timing Accuracy and Precision In addition to correcty structuring the code for the benchmark tests, it is important to evauate the timing mechanisms avaiabe and use them propery. The accuracy and precision of any cocks used must be measured, since these vaues determine the running time of the benchmark, which in turn determines the precision and accuracy of the resuts due to the measurement technique. Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 22 Voume X, Number 3

4 Cocks There are severa options possibe when choosing a timing mechanism for use in benchmark programs. The most obvious choice in this cast is the Ada CLOCK function of the CALENDAR package. The CLOCK function measures rea time (aso referred to as wa cock time ) by definition of the anguage. Using the CLOCK function for timing in benchmarks has both advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage is portabiity, since the time intervas may be determined by taking the difference of two CLOCK readings in an impementation independent manner. The main disadvantage is that, since CLOCK returns rea time, the benchmark must be run in a situation where it has soe access to a avaiabe CPU cyces. If any intervening processes are present, e.g., in a time-shared system, they wi stea away CPU cyces from the benchmark whie the CLOCK is sti ticking. This situation woud provide an inaccurate measure of the benchmark s running time. Another possibiity for timing in benchmark programs is to use a CPU or virtua timer. A timer of this type measures the time actuay used by the program. It does not tick when the program is bocked and another job is executing. This type of timer is generay provided in time-shared systems (e.g. Unix and VMS). There are two main disadvantages in using CPU timers. The first is portabiity. Athough the timer may be invoked by caing a anguage eve function, that function must be rewritten for each operating system that the benchmark programs are run with. The second disadvantage is the degree of uncertainty present when using CPU timers. In the presence of other jobs, CPU timers charge ticks to the running process when the wa cock is updated. Since context switches can occur at any time, it is possibe for time to be charged to the active processes inaccuratey. A few informa tests have been done at Michigan that demonstrates variabiity of CPU time rcadings in the presence of additiona system oad. Whie the timers may be accurate enough in the ong run for accounting purposes, a confidence eve for short time periods must be estabished before using them in conjunction with benchmark programs. Yet another option for timing in benchmark programs is to use machine dependent hardware timers. These timers can generay be read directy without operating system interference, and they usuay measure rea time, When they are present, hardware timers usuay provide a finer resoution than timers avaiabe through the operating system. These timers are critica in the case of embedded systems where there is no operating system. Whie ower reading overhead and higher resoution are desirabe quaities for a timer, the probem of portabiity sti remains in this case. In the case of embedded systems, cock resoution and accuracy are even more important. In order to maximize these features in such a system, ogic anayzers and other high resoution externa hardware timers can be used. Whie providing the highest amount of accuracy and precision possibe, these timers often require knowedge of the assemby code generated by the benchmark so that a trigger for the externa timer can be determined. This type of timing is not at a machine independent, and cannot be expressed at the anguage eve. The PIWG suite currenty uses both the Ada CLOCK function and an operating system dependent CPU timer for measuring time intervas. Because the CLOCK function measures rea time and the CPU time may vary with system oad, it is required that the benchmark program be the ony active program in the system. When avaiabe or appropriate, the definition of the system dependent cock function can be changed to take advantage of additiona accuracy and precision, as described above. The use of mutipe cocks provides some additiona confidence in the resuts when they agree, and can hep pinpoint probems when they do not. Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 23 Voume X, Number 3

5 Cock Resoution Independent of which type of cock is used to measure time intervas, its precision must be determined since this affects the benchmark s running time and the precision of the resuts. As stated in Chap. 2, the effective precision of a cock is the resoution, or interva of time by which the cock is incremented at each tick. This vaue can be determined using the second differencing technique expained in detai in [ 111. We outine the basic approach beow. The idea behind second differencing is that, independent of the time needed to read the cock and its effective precision, the resoution can be determined by a series of neary consecutive, equay spaced cock readings. By equay spaced, we mean cock readings with the same set of other instructions being executed between each read. If we assume that the resoution can be exacty represented by a mode number that is an integer mutipe of DURATION SMALL, then we can determine the cock resoution by taking the second difference of the string of vaues produced from the consecutive cock readings. A sequence of first differences is produced by computing the difference between a adjacent vaues in the origina sequence of cock readings. Appying this differencing operation again to the sequence of first differences produces a sequence of second differences. As stated in [o], the vaues present in the second difference sequence are one of r, -T, or 0, where r is the cock resoution. Furthermore, as stated in [o], the number of zeros present in the second difference sequence can be bounded and reduced by adding instructions between consecutive readings of the cock. If we drop the assumption that the resoution may be exacty represented by a mode number for type DURATION, the process of determining the cock resoution becomes more invoved. Depending on the impementation of the CLOCK function or some other cock routine and its Ada interface, it is possibe for first or second difference vaues to be equa to DURATION SMALL when they shoud be equa to 0. In this situation, the arger of any vaues present in a second difference string shoud be regarded as the cock resoution. This probem arises because a vaue that shoud be equa to the cock resoution can instead ony approximate it. The difference between this vaue and the actua cock resohttion is ess than DURATION SMALL. Thus, two distinct vaues that differ by DURATION SMALL coud both be representations of the cock resoution. This probem is addressed in more detai in the paper by Poack and Campbe that appears in Chap. 7. Another probem that has occurred with this technique of cock caibration is the case where the rea time cock of a system is artificiay incremented by a vaue much smaer than the resoution between consecutive cock readings. This change in the vaue of the cock is not due to a tick, but instead occurs because the operating system wants to guarantee that no two cock readings wi return the same resut. This property is usefu when there is a need to dynamicay generate unique identifiers, but it confuses the semantics of the cock. This stye of rea time cock impementation has been observed at Michigan and by others [36] in the Sun-3 and Sun-4 series computers. The cock is incremented by one microsecond between readings uness enough time has passed to tick the cock to the next even mutipe of 20 miiseconds. When caibrating cocks of this type, coser scrutiny is required when examining the origina readings, the first difference sequence, and second difference sequences. Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 24 Voume X, Number 3

6 Accuracy Cock accuracy is important to gauge as it determines the degree of reiabiity of benchmark resuts. It is aso desirabe to measure the accuracy of the CLOCK function since it is a performance parameter of the compier and run-time system. One way to measure accuracy is to compare cock readings with vaues from another cock. At the anguage and system eve, this woud invove comparing mutipe consecutive readings of a cocks avaiabe, e.g., CLOCK, a CPU cock, a hardware cock, or an externa timer. Since a of the interna cocks may rey on the same hardware timer, we woud expect them to agree for the most part. Any discrepancies may expose differences in the impementation or varying amounts of overhead in reading the cock. Utimatey, in order to verify the vaidity of the timing hardware, the updating of the cock vaue must be compared against an externa standard. Another issue that is important to the rea-time programmer and which may affect accuracy is the overhead encountered in reading the cock. This is mainy a concern of the CLOCK function provided by the anguage. Measuring overhead and comparing it to the resoution wi give an indication of how stae the CLOCK reading may be. Aso, if a programmer wishes to use the CLOCK function as part of a cacuation to determine a vaue for a deay statement, the overhead invoved in caing CLOCK coud be critica. However, the overhead invoved in reading the cock does not theoreticay affect the second differencing technique described above. A onger overhead has an effect anaogous to inserting other instructions between cock readings. If the cock overhead is greater than the resoution, though, it is necessary to compute the second differences to determine the cock resoution. If the overhead is ess than the resoution, computing the first differences is sufficient to produce the resoution. As for measuring time intervas for benchmarks, the cock overhead wi not greaty affect the resuts as ong as it is constant. Intuitivey, this resuts from the notion that the overhead wi be spit into two pieces, the part before the actua instruction that reads a time register and the part that occurs after. Two readings of the cock then measure the running time of the instructions executing between the cas as we as one after part and one before part of the cock reading overhead. Therefore, a timed interva contains the tota time needed for one reading of the cock. If the overhead is on the order of the cock resoution, its effect on the measurement wi be diminished by the number of times the measured feature was repeated. If the overhead is much greater than the resoution, its vaue can be subtracted from each time interva measured Measurement Precision and Accuracy The precision of the time measurements is determined by the resoution of the cock used and the number of times the feature being measured in the oop was repeated. Because oops are used, we ca this repetition count the number of iterations. As reported in [o], the time a oop takes to execute and the time measured for it using a cock can differ by as much as the resoution of the cock. When this vaue is divided by the number of iterations (ca it N), we find that the measured vaue for a singe execution of a feature is within a vaue r/n of the actua time (where r is the cock resoution). Assuming no other effects are present that invaidate the measurement, we can say that the measurement is to a precision of r/n, and the accuracy of the reported vaue is within fr/iv of the actua vaue. Since r/n indicates a bound on the amount that the measured vaue can vary Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 25 Voume X, Number 3

7 from the actua, a percentage of certainty can be cacuated. If it is desired that the reported resuts be within 1% of the actua, one ony need guarantee that r/n be ess than 1% of the measured time. This can be done by increasing the number of iterations unti the condition is met Measurement Stabiity Because of severa different effects that interfere with benchmark measurements (as described beow), we woud ike to specify some stabiity criteria to hep increase confidence in a measurement. Since the cock resoution can be determined and the number of iterations is under programmer contro, the amount of error introduced by the repetition technique aone can be minimized. As stated above, we can imit this particuar source of error to 1% or even ess. To reach this goa of 1% error, the number of iterations for a test is increased unti the difference in times for the test oop and the contro oop is greater than 100 * T. If we assume no other effects are present that may skew the resuts, the vaue determined for the measurement wi be within one cock tick of the actua time used. &r compared to 100 * r is an error of & 1%. The vaue reported for a singe iteration is aso within %, the precision of this vaue is r/n as stated above. In situations where the cock resoution is coarse and the feature being measured requires very itte time to execute, the number of iterations may be prohibitivey arge. Aowances for additiona error must be made in these cases and considered when anayzing the resuts. Aso, it is important to note that other effects may be present that introduce additiona error into the resuts. These effects are described in the next section Probems with Dua Loop Approach There are severa probems that can occur in different compier impementations running on different computer systems that can distort the benchmark resuts when using the measurement techniques described above. We cassify the major probems into three categories: 1. Transation Anomaies 2. Code Pacement Effects 3. Operating and Run-Time System Interference Athough 3. was discussed in [o], points 1. and 2. have been identified by users of the PIWG and Michigan suites since A three of these probems have been discussed in detai in [2]. They were aso discussed in Apri 1988 at a PIWG workshop [34] Transation Anomaies A transation anomay occurs when the compier generates correct code that differs from that expected. The principe causes of transation anomaies resut from a faiure in the technique used for bocking an optimizer or from a compier that generates different machine code for two pieces of textuay identica Ada code. The first case occurs when improper techniques for optimization bocking are used. Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 26 Voume X, Number 3

8 A concerted effort must be made at design time to ensure that a optimization bocking techniques cannot be circumvented. Prototyping the benchmark on severa systems can aso aid in detecting oophoes that optimizers might find, but this shoud not be used excusivey. The second case of transation anomay can occur if a compier generates machine code based on some goba conditions in addition to the origina Ada source. For exampe, a subprogram s entry code may be onger or shorter if it is the first one decared in a package. Other exampes incude subprogram cas being ong or short based on their reative position to the caer or NOP instructions being added in some cases to provide word aignment. These probems can be detected by repeating the benchmark oops severa time textuay and measuring times for a the contro and test oops separatey. If more information is known about why any discrepancies may exist (e.g. compier generated assemby code is avaiabe), some determination may be made as to which oop times shoud be considered vaid. This code repetition technique can aso detect other anomaies as we sha see next Code Pacement Effects Additiona timing anomaies can occur when running benchmarks due to the effect of code pacement in memory. Experiments have shown that textuay identica oops may have different running times if code for a oop crosses a page boundary (even if there is no page faut) or is aigned on a hafword boundary [2]. Other probems arise if the benchmark code cannot entirey fit inside a cache (if present) or inside of main memory. Cache misses and/or page fauts invoke system activity and increase execution overhead. If these effects are not equay spread across a timing oops, the resuts wi be distorted. In [o], the recommendation was made that a benchmarks be made sma enough to avoid the effects of paging. In some cases, this requires a benchmark to undo certain actions previousy done, so that arge amounts of memory are not consumed [7]. When caches are present, it woud be preferabe if the benchmark code coud reside entirey in the cache. A run through the code before timing begins can bring the code into (or warm up ) the cache and main memory. Testing with mutipe textuay identica oops can aid in detecting any of these conditions. The benchmarks shoud aso be repeated textuay within the code with mutipe compete runs made to determine if any of these conditions are significanty affecting the resuts Operating and Run-Time System Interference Interference from the operating system and/or run-time system can aso invaidate benchmark resuts. As mentioned in [o], it is possibe for an operating system to time-sice a benchmark and check for other processes to run even if the benchmark is the ony process in the system. It is aso possibe for system daemon processes to become active and compete with the benchmark for CPU time. The run-time system can interfere with the benchmark as we if, for exampe, it begins a background task to perform garbage coection. Many of these effects can bc avoided if system daemons can be disabed. If some probems sti occur, wid distortions appearing in the resuts can be discarded if they are very infrequent. Some effects cannot be avoided, but wi probaby invove ony a sma cost. When running the Michigan Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 27 Voume X, Number 3

9 benchmarks under Unix, it was estimated that operating system interference consumed no more than 5% of the run time [o]. The Michigan approach was to repeat the tests severa times and assume that the smaest running times for both the contro and test oops represented the cases where system interference was minima. The PIWG approach invoves an average of running times with extreme vaues on both ends being discarded. This wi tend to average the system costs into the resuts. Other approaches to measuring this effect or factoring it out are possibe. Ada Letters Specia Edition Page 28 Voume X. Number 3

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