Virtual Memory. Contiguous Allocation. Contiguous Allocation. Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem. Fragmentation. Logical vs. Physical Address Space

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1 Logical vs. Physical Address Space Virtual Memory CSCI Operating Systems Design Department of Computer Science The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a separate physical address space is central to proper memory management. Logical address generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address. Physical address address seen by the memory unit. Logical and physical addresses are the same in compiletime and load-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme. Notice: The slides for this lecture have been largely based on those from an earlier edition of the course text Operating Systems Concepts, 8th ed., by Silberschatz, Galvin, and Gagne. Many, if not all, the illustrations contained in this presentation come from this source. CSCI Operating Systems Design Contiguous Allocation Main memory usually into two partitions: Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector. User processes then held in high memory. Single-partition allocation Relocation-register scheme used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing operating-system code and data. Relocation-register contains value of smallest physical address; limit register contains range of logical addresses each logical address must be less than the limit register. Contiguous Allocation Multiple-partition allocation Hole block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered throughout memory. When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to accommodate it. Operating system maintains information about: a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole) OS process process 8 OS process OS process process 9 OS process process 9 process 0 CSCI Operating Systems Design process process process process CSCI Operating Systems Design Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes. First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough. Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless ordered by size. Produces the smallest leftover hole. Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list. Produces the largest leftover hole. First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization. CSCI Operating Systems Design Fragmentation External Fragmentation total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous. Internal Fragmentation allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used. Reduce external fragmentation by compaction: Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block. Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is done at execution time. I/O problem Latch job in memory while it is involved in I/O. Do I/O only into OS buffers. CSCI Operating Systems Design 6

2 Paging Logical address space of a process can be noncontiguous; process is allocated physical memory whenever the latter is available. Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames (size is power of, between bytes and 89 bytes). Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages (we want to make page size equal to frame size). Keep track of all free frames. To run a program of size n pages, need to find n free frames and load program. Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses. Address Translation Scheme Address generated by CPU is divided into: Page number (p) used as an index into a page table which contains base address of each page in physical memory. Page offset (d) combined with base address to define the physical memory address that is sent to the memory unit. Internal fragmentation. CSCI Operating Systems Design 7 CSCI Operating Systems Design 8 Address Translation Architecture Paging Example CSCI Operating Systems Design 9 CSCI Operating Systems Design 0 Free Frames Implementation of Page Table Page table is kept in main memory. Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table. Page-table length register (PRLR) indicates size of the page table. In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses. One for the page table and one for the data/instruction. Before allocation After allocation The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache called associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs). CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design

3 Associative Memory Associative memory parallel search Paging Hardware With TLB Page # Frame # Address translation (A, A ) If A is in associative register, get frame # out. Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory Associative memory is used to implement a TLB. Note that the TLB is nothing more than a special purpose cache memory to speed up access to the page table. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design Effective Access Time Associative Lookup =! time unit Assume memory cycle time is microsecond Hit ratio percentage of times that a page number is found in the associative registers; ration related to number of associative registers. Hit ratio = " Effective Access Time (EAT) EAT = ( +!) " + ( +!)( ") = +! " Memory Protection Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit with each frame. Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table: valid indicates that the associated page is in the process logical address space, and is thus a legal page. invalid indicates that the page is not in the process logical address space. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 Hierarchical Page Tables Break up the logical address space into multiple page tables. A simple technique is a two-level page table. Two-Level Paging Example A logical address (on -bit machine with K page size) is divided into: a page number consisting of 0 bits. a page offset consisting of bits. Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into: a 0-bit page number. a 0-bit page offset. Thus, a logical address is as follows: page number p p d page offset 0 0 where p is an index into the outer page table, and p is the displacement within the page of the outer page table. CSCI Operating Systems Design 7 CSCI Operating Systems Design 8

4 Two-Level Page-Table Scheme Address-Translation Scheme Address-translation scheme for a two-level -bit paging architecture: CSCI Operating Systems Design 9 CSCI Operating Systems Design 0 Shared Pages Shared Pages Example Shared code One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems). Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address space of all processes. Private code and data Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data. The pages for the private code and data can appear anywhere in the logical address space. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design Virtual Memory Virtual Memory Larger than Physical Memory Virtual memory separation of user logical memory from physical memory. Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution. Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space. Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes. Allows for more efficient process creation. Virtual memory can be implemented via: Demand paging Demand segmentation CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design

5 Demand Paging Bring a page into memory only when it is needed. Less I/O needed. Less memory needed. Faster response. More users. Transfer of a Paged Memory to Contiguous Disk Space Page is needed (there is a reference to it): invalid reference # abort. not-in-memory # bring to memory. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 Valid-Invalid Bit With each page table entry a valid invalid bit is associated ( # in-memory, 0 # not-in-memory) Initially valid invalid but is set to 0 on all entries. Example of a page table snapshot. Frame # M valid-invalid bit 0 Page Table when some pages are not in Main Memory page table During address translation, if valid invalid bit in page table entry is 0 # page fault. 0 0 CSCI Operating Systems Design 7 CSCI Operating Systems Design 8 Page Fault Steps in Handling a Page Fault If there is ever a reference to a page, first reference will trap to OS # page fault. OS looks at page table to decide: If it was an invalid reference # abort. If it was a reference to a page that is not in memory, continue. Get an empty frame. Swap page into frame. Correct the page table and make validation bit =. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault. CSCI Operating Systems Design 9 CSCI Operating Systems Design 0

6 What if there is no free frame? Page replacement find some page in memory, that is not really in use and swap it out. Must define an algorithm to select what page is replaced. Performance: want an algorithm which will result in minimum number of page faults. The same page may be brought in and out of memory several times. No free frame: now what? Page replacement: Are all those pages in memory being referenced? Choose one to swap back out to disk and make room to load a new page. Algorithm: How you choose a victim. Performance: Want an algorithm that will result in minimum number of page faults. Side effect: The same page may be brought in and out of memory several times. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design Performance of Demand Paging Page Fault Rate: 0 $ p $.0 if p = 0 no page faults. if p =, every reference is a fault. Effective Access Time (EAT): where: EAT = [( p) (memory access)] + [p (page fault overhead)] page fault overhead = [swap page out ] + [swap page in] + [restart overhead] Page Replacement Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying pagefault service routine to include page replacement. Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers only modified pages are written to disk. Page replacement completes separation between logical memory and physical memory large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller physical memory. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design Need For Page Replacement Basic Page Replacement. Find the location of the desired page on disk.. Find a free frame: - If there is a free frame, use it. - If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a victim frame.. Read the desired page into the (newly) free frame. Update the page and frame tables.. Restart the process. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design 6

7 Page Replacement Page Replacement Algorithms Goal: Produce a low page-fault rate. Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory references (reference string) and computing the number of page faults on that string. The reference string is produced by tracing a real program or by some stochastic model. We look at every address produced and strip off the page offset, leaving only the page number. For instance:,,,,,,,,,,, CSCI Operating Systems Design 7 CSCI Operating Systems Design 8 Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number of Frames FIFO Page Replacement Reference string:,,,,,,,,,,,. frames ( pages can be in memory at a time per process) frames 9 page faults 0 page faults FIFO Replacement # Belady s Anomaly: more frames, more page faults. CSCI Operating Systems Design 9 CSCI Operating Systems Design 0 FIFO Page Replacement FIFO (Belady s Anomaly) CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design

8 Optimal Algorithm Replace the page that will not be used for longest period of time. (How can you know what the future references will be?) frames example:,,,,,,,,,,, Optimal Page Replacement 6 page faults Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design LRU Algorithm Reference string:,,,,,,,,,,, LRU Page Replacement Counter implementation: Every page entry has a counter; every time page is referenced through this entry, copy the clock into the counter. When a page needs to be changed, look at the counters to determine which are to change. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 LRU Algorithm (Cont.) Stack implementation keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form: Page referenced: move it to the top requires 6 pointers to be changed No search for replacement. LRU and Belady s Anomaly LRU does not suffer from Belady s Anomaly (OPT doesn t either). It has been shown that algorithms in a class called stack algorithms can never exhibit Belady s Anomaly. A stack algorithm is one for which the set of pages in memory for n frames is a subset of the pages that Could be in memory for n+ frames. CSCI Operating Systems Design 7 CSCI Operating Systems Design 8

9 Use Of A Stack to Record The Most Recent Page References LRU Approximation Algorithms Reference bit With each page associate a bit, initially = 0 When page is referenced bit set to. Replace the one which is 0 (if one exists). We do not know the order, however. Second chance Need reference bit. Clock replacement. If page to be replaced (in clock order) has reference bit =. then: set reference bit 0. leave page in memory. replace next page (in clock order), subject to same rules. CSCI Operating Systems Design 9 CSCI Operating Systems Design 0 Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm Counting Algorithms Keep a counter of the number of references that have been made to each page. LFU Algorithm: replaces page with smallest count. MFU Algorithm: based on the argument that the page with the smallest count was probably just brought in and has yet to be used. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design Allocation of Frames Each process needs a minimum number of pages. Fixed Allocation Equal allocation e.g., if 00 frames and processes, give each 0 pages. Proportional allocation Allocate according to the size of process. There are two major allocation schemes: fixed allocation priority allocation CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design

10 Priority Allocation Use a proportional allocation scheme using priorities rather than size. If process P i generates a page fault, select for replacement one of its frames. select for replacement a frame from a process with lower priority number. Global vs. Local Allocation Global replacement process selects a replacement frame from the set of all frames; one process can take a frame from another. Local replacement each process selects from only its own set of allocated frames. CSCI Operating Systems Design CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 Thrashing If a process does not have enough pages, the page-fault rate is very high. This leads to: Low CPU utilization. Operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree of multiprogramming. Another process added to the system. Thrashing % a process is busy swapping pages in and out. CSCI Operating Systems Design 7 Thrashing Why does paging work? Locality model Process migrates from one locality to another. Localities may overlap. Why does thrashing occur? & size of locality > total memory size CSCI Operating Systems Design 8 Locality in Memory-Reference Pattern Working-Set Model ' % working-set window % a fixed number of page references. WSS i (working set of Process P i ) = total number of pages referenced in the most recent ' (varies in time) if ' too small will not encompass entire locality. if ' too large will encompass several localities. if ' = ( # will encompass entire program. D = & WSS i % total demand frames if D > m # Thrashing Policy if D > m, then suspend one of the processes. CSCI Operating Systems Design 9 CSCI Operating Systems Design 60

11 Working-set model Keeping Track of the Working Set Approximate with interval timer + a reference bit Example: ' = 0,000 Timer interrupts after every 000 time units. Keep in memory bits for each page. Whenever a timer interrupts copy and sets the values of all reference bits to 0. If one of the bits in memory = # page in working set. Why is this not completely accurate? Improvement = 0 bits and interrupt every 000 time units. CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 Page-Fault Frequency Scheme Memory-mapped Files Memory mapping a file can be accomplished by mapping a disk block to one or more pages in memory. A page-sized portion of the file is read from the file system into a physical page. Subsequent read() and write() operations are handled as memory (not disk) accesses. Establish acceptable page-fault rate. If actual rate too low, process loses frame. If actual rate too high, process gains frame. Writing to the file in memory is not necessarily synchronous to the file on disk. The file can be committed back to disk when it s closed. CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 Memory-mapped Files Prepaging 6 process A virtual memory 6 6 Prepaging: In order to avoid the initial number of page faults, the system can bring into memory all the pages that will be needed all at once. This can also be applied when a swapped-out process is restarted. The smart thing to do is to remember the working set of the process. One question that arises is whether all the pages brought in will actually be used 6 disk file process B virtual memory Is the cost of prepaging less than the cost of servicing each individual page fault? CSCI Operating Systems Design 6 CSCI Operating Systems Design 66