The Rock Cycle. Surficial Processes and the Rock Cycle: What happens when diamonds reach the surface? Activity 3.1 BACKGROUNDER
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1 Surficial es and the Rock Cycle: What happens when diamonds reach the surface? Activity 3.1 BACKGROUNDER The Rock Cycle The rock cycle identifies the processes that create the various rocks that make up the Earth. There are three main groups of rocks: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. These groups are distinguished by unique formation processes that give them their distinct identifying characteristics. Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are formed directly from magma, the molten rock located deep within the Earth, and can be categorized either as extrusive or intrusive igneous rocks. Extrusive igneous rocks result when lava magma that reaches the surface cools on the surface of the Earth (i.e., from volcanoes). Intrusive rocks form when the liquid magma solidifies within the crust. The rate of cooling determines the texture of the rock. Rapid cooling results in small or non-existent crystals; these are typical characteristics of extrusive igneous rocks. Slower cooling allows the growth of larger, distinct crystals, generally found in intrusive igneous rocks. Due to the forces involved in volcanic eruptions, and the liquid nature of magma, some extruded igneous rocks can contain fragments of dust, rock particles, and ash. Their texture can be described as pyroclastic. Not all extrusive rock, however, is pyroclastic. Magma exists with a range of chemical compositions; this is evident from the varying chemical compositions of igneous rocks. At one end of the scale are acid rocks, such as granite, that have a high percentage of quartz. At the opposite end are the basic rocks, such as basalt, that contain no quartz, and instead, have a high percentage of pyroxene and calcium plagioclase. Examples of igneous rocks include granite, pumice, obsidian, and basalt. Kimberlite, the diamond-bearing rock, is also an igneous rock. Sedimentary Rocks The process of erosion is important to the formation of sedimentary rocks. Surface rocks are worn away by erosion and the loose sediment is transported away by wind, water, or glaciers. The sediment is deposited and collects in a new place: on land, beaches, and glacial moraines, as well as river, lake, and seabeds. As more sediment arrives, the process of burial begins and continues with compaction and cementation. Sedimentary rocks are usually made up of layers, often distinguishable in rocks such as sandstone and shale. Compaction is the gradual process of packing sediments together to form rock. As the deposits build up, the increased weight helps the process. Cementation binds the compacted sediments together with minerals that are often brought in by percolating groundwater. Common cements are calcite and silica. The strength of a sedimentary rock is determined by the cement involved in its formation. 77
2 Sedimentary rocks may contain fossils: dead plants and animals that became part of the sediment build-up, and over time, were compacted within the rocks. Large amounts of organic material, subjected to the pressure and heat of subsequent sedimentary layers, eventually break down into carbon and hydrogen, which then become petroleum or natural gas. Examples of sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, limestone, conglomerate, and dolostone. Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are those that have been changed from their preexisting state by one or more influencing factors. The principal factors of metamorphism are pressure, temperature, and the chemical composition of fluids in the rock. These factors change at least one of the minerals, structures, or textures in a preexisting rock. Contact metamorphism refers to the local effect around igneous intrusions, and is predominantly the result of heat. Regional metamorphism refers to changes that occur after deep burial of rocks for example, in subduction and is usually produced by a combination of heat and pressure. The crystals in a metamorphic rock often elongate parallel to the direction of least stress. This alignment creates stripes in the rock showing a predominate orientation, referred to as foliations. Slate, a common example of foliated metamorphic rock, splits easily into thin slabs. Examples of metamorphic rock include slate, gneiss, quartzite, and marble. Granite is an example of igneous rock. Image by Jupiterimages. 78
3 Surficial es and the Rock Cycle: What happens when diamonds reach the surface? Activity 3.1 OUTLINE The Rock Cycle COMPLEXITY DISCOVERING DIAMONDS Overview The rock cycle is an endless system in which rock material is continually recycled as the rocks of the Earth are created and destroyed. In this activity, students learn the terms that apply to the processes and products of the rock cycle, and, using those terms, create a visual representation of the rock cycle. Students then superimpose the diamond story onto the rock-cycle diagram. Materials None required Glossary Key Words Erosion Transportation Deposition Sediment Burial Cementation Compaction Sedimentary rock Compression Igneous rock Metamorphic rock Melting Uplift Continental crust Subduction Magma Oceanic crust Intrusion Extrusion Pyroclastic Foliation The diamond-bearing rock kimberlite is an igneous rock. The processes of erosion, transportation, and deposition of kimberlites lead to the dispersal of indicator minerals and, rarely, to alluvial diamond deposits. Classroom Instructions This is a self-directed activity that may be assigned in class or as independent work outside the classroom. It is suggested that the activity be completed in two stages. Stage one involves identifying rock-cycle terms, then arranging them in a diagram of the rock cycle; this should be completed as an introduction to Topic 3. Stage two requires students to superimpose the diamond story onto the rock-cycle diagram. Students will be better equipped to accomplish this task after the remaining activities in Topic 3 have been completed. In the accompanying Activities, students will frequently read and refer to kimberlite, since it is the primary source rock for diamonds on Earth. However, as kimberlite is somewhat rare and unusual in its characteristics, it is not commonly included in introductory Earth science courses. In Activity 2.3 Volcanic Eruptions and Kimberlites, students discover how kimberlites get to the surface, and should understand that a body of magma has forced its way up through layers of rock, some of which contain diamonds. Kimberlite is an igneous rock that carries with it pieces of these secondary rocks, including diamonds. Identifying kimberlites is not possible solely by looking at a hand-held specimen. 79
4 Safety Precautions There are no safety issues in this activity. Assessment Ideas and Sample Responses 1. Identify each rock-cycle term below as either a process or a product of the rock cycle. Create a visual representation of the rock cycle by arranging the terms to show the connections between the various products and processes. Use different colours to identify the processes and products in the rock cycle. This is a visualization task; therefore, there is no single solution. Emphasis should be placed on depicting the correct connections. The terms may be used as many times as required to ensure all possible pathways and connections are shown. Below is one possible depiction of the rock cycle. 80
5 Terms are classified as either a process or product in the chart below. Student responses will be colour coded on their rock cycle diagram as either a process or a product of the rock cycle. Rock-Cycle Terms Erosion Transportation Deposition Sediment Burial Cementation Compaction Sedimentary rock Heating Compression Metamorphic rock Melting Uplift Igneous rock Intrusion Extrusion Continental crust Subduction Magma Oceanic crust Cooling Partial melting Classification as or 81
6 2. Superimpose the stages in the diamond story onto the rock-cycle diagram. Students should be able to convey their understanding of the processes required for diamond formation that are associated with the formation of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Kimberlite is an igneous rock product from the process of intrusion. Erosion of kimberlites, followed by transportation and deposition, can result in alluvial diamond deposits and the dispersion of diamond indicator minerals. Burial of kimberlites at the surface also occurs as the surrounding landscape erodes, and the resulting sediment is transported and deposited. Diamond Story Diamonds formed Indicator minerals formed Kimberlite magma forms Kimberlite rises and picks up diamonds Kimberlite pipe erupts at surface Kimberlite is eroded Indicator minerals are dispersed Alluvial diamond deposits are formed Stages in the Rock Cycle Metamorphism Metamorphism, igneous rock Magma, igneous rock Intrusion Extrusion Erosion Transportation, deposition Deposition 82
7 Surficial es and the Rock Cycle: What happens when diamonds reach the surface? Activity 3.1 HANDOUT The Rock Cycle Instructions 1. Identify each rock-cycle term below as either a process or a product of the rock cycle. Create a visual representation of the rock cycle by arranging the terms to show the connections between the various products and processes. Use different colours to identify the processes or products in the rock cycle. This is a visualization task; therefore, there is no single solution. Emphasis should be placed on depicting the correct connections. The terms may be used as many times as required to ensure all possible pathways and connections are shown. Rock-Cycle Terms Erosion Transportation Deposition Sediment Burial Cementation Compaction Sedimentary rock Heating Compression Metamorphic rock Melting Uplift Igneous rock Continental crust Subduction Magma Lava Oceanic crust Cooling Partial melting DISCOVERING DIAMONDS The diamond-bearing rock kimberlite is an igneous rock. The processes of erosion, transportation, and deposition of kimberlites lead to the dispersal of indicator minerals and, rarely, to alluvial diamond deposits. 2. Superimpose the stages in the diamonds story onto the rock-cycle diagram. Stages in the Diamond Story Diamonds formed Indicator minerals formed Kimberlite magma forms Kimberlite rises and picks up diamonds Kimberlite pipe erupts at surface Kimberlite is eroded Indicator minerals are dispersed Alluvial diamond deposits are formed 83
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