Behavioral Perspective - 1. Behavioral Model

Transcription

1 Behavioral Model Behavioral Perspective - 1 Behaviorism was founded as an attempt to move away from introspective, unmeasurable concepts in psychology. Behaviorists wanted to establish psychology as a science like physics or chemistry, with the emphasis only on what is observable and measurable. Personality isn t a thing inside you that causes consistency in behavior; it is that consistency. Basic principles of learning theory Our responses and behaviors are learned We learn to maximize pleasure (reward), avoid pain (punishment) Born with certain instinctual responses Learn through association (classical conditioning) consequences (operant/instrumental conditioning) observation Behavioral theory emphasizes: Observable behavior Later included cognitive/social features situational variables the function of behaviors ways of altering behavior patterns testable hypotheses, experimentation relevance of animal models John Watson Personality = The end product of our habit systems. Conditioning principles account for almost all human behavior Because we ve all had unique learning histories, we re all different Principles of Learning I Classical conditioning Originally described and researched by Pavlov with dogs. Involves existing S-R assocation We learn to respond to previously neutral stimuli (CS) based on their association with stimuli that already elicit responses (UCS) UCS >UCR UCS+CS >UCR CS >CR

2 Behavioral - 2 these associations: generalize contribute to further learning are subject to extinction (or decrease at least) if the pairing doesn t occur again at least occasionally can be context-specific Watson and Raynor demonstrated classical conditioning principles with people in the case of Little Albert. Generalization Generalization can be adaptive or maladaptive. Discrimination While generalization is responding to similarities, discrimination is responding to differences. II Operant conditioning Skinner Thorndike s Law of Effect; Behavior that results in satisfying consequences (rewards) will be repeated Behavior that is followed by unpleasant consequences will not be repeated. Skinner applied the law of effect to humans and called it reinforcement theory. Operant conditioning begins with behavior that is emitted spontaneously Then reinforced, ignored, or punished. Skinner argued that all behavior is determined by the reinforcers that are provided by the social environment No free will Black box Reinforcement - increases freq. of beh. Positive giving something good Negative taking away something bad Punishment - decreases freq. of beh. Positive giving something bad (e.g., spanking) Negative - removing something (e.g., time out) Extinction decreases freq. of beh. Ignoring behavior/no consequences Study of personality is the study of the individual s idiosyncratic learning history and history of contingencies A B C

3 Behavioral - 3 In operant conditioning, discrimination means we learn that the presence of certain stimuli, a behavior is likely to be reinforced, but not in the presence of other stimuli. Generalization means that behavior translates to other (similar) situations, even if it is not rewarded in those situations. Shaping Especially useful for complex behaviors Schedules of reinforcement Continuous - leads to quickest learning Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed interval responding highest at end of interval Variable-interval reinforcement - most effective, resistant to extinction APPLICATION - Decreasing unwanted behavior The best way to get rid of negative behaviors is to stop reinforcing them according to conditioning principles, they should extinguish. Problems with punishment Punishment is popular but relatively ineffective: Doesn t teach alternative behaviors Only temporarily suppresses behaviors Child may learn undesirable behaviors through modeling (screaming, hitting) Child may learn that bigger, stronger people can do what they want May create negative emotions that inhibit appropriate behaviors Punishment is more effective when: intense immediate consistent Strengths of Skinnerian Theory Comphrehensive Testable Supported by research Generativity Parsimonious Internally consistent

4 Behavioral - 4 Criticisms of Skinnerian Theory Internal thoughts and feelings can t be ignored. While measuring observable responses is scientific, it ignores the processes of thinking and feeling that make us uniquely human. Principles of learning were discovered and studied using animal subjects. Applying principles of animal learning to humans is a big leap, since humans have more complex systems of thought and action. Overly simplistic Modeling/Social Learning Theory Rotter Most of our behavior is learned through experiences with other people Focus on past only to extent that it helps us predict current behavior Personality is both changing and stable Behavior is mostly goal-directed Motivated to maximize reward and minimize punishment Early goals learned in family setting Personality development is a function of the range, diversity, and quality of people s experiences with other people. We need to take perceptions, expectancies, and values into account when predicting behavior. Behavior potential likelihood of behavior occurring in given situation Expectancy likelihood that behavior will result in a certain reinforcer Value how much we value that reinforcer above others (probability being equal) Efficacy our beliefs about whether we are capable of producing the behavior in question Locus of control Generalized expectancy of control over reinforcers and contingencies Internals happier in general than externals Psychological disorders Achievement Psychotherapy Health Drawbacks to being internal Bilocals may be healthier Bandura Social-Cognitive Theory Our internal and external behavior and environment influence each other bidirectionally Reciprocal determinism Potential environment vs. actual environment Emphasis on cognitive aspects of personality and how they influence behavior We use mental representations and forethought to guide behavior

5 Behavioral - 5 We imagine possible outcomes, set goals, develop strategies. Past experiences guide these judgments Reinforcements as important, but don t account for everything and don t always strengthen or weaken behavior as others have theorized Most behavior is performed without external reinforcement/punishment Self-regulation Anticipated outcomes Modeling We have many behavioral models, including parents, friends, teachers, etc. Observational learning Behavioral repertoire How do we learn? Bobo experiments For us to imitate a behavior, we must Attend to the behavior Remember the behavior Enact the behavior Expect the behavior to be rewarded Violence and the media What determines what behaviors we will imitate? Expectations about consequences More likely to pick up relevant behavior More likely to imitate behavior that s presented as justified More likely to imitate a model who is Similar to observer in age, race, gender, looks Powerful Competent Warm and nurturing In control over future resources of the observer Justified in his/her behavior People low in self-esteem or competence are more likely to imitate behavior Self-efficacy Belief that one has impact on environment Type of expectancy Outcome expectation belief that an action will produce a certain outcome Efficacy expectation belief that you are capable of performing that action Bandura thinks efficacy expectation is more important than outcome expectations

6 Behavioral - 6 Physiological and affective states impact efficacy Efficacy impacts effort and persistence Low efficacy avoid difficult situations no opportunity to develop efficacy Self-efficacy and achievement Behaviorism and Psychopathology Abnormal behavior is not qualitatively different from normal behavior Abnormal behavior is learned just like any other behavior. Through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or modeling. Associations could have taken place a long time ago or without our awareness Lack of appropriate behaviors may be due to inadequate reinforcement Learned helplessness model of depression Treatment Behavior therapists see the behavior itself as the problem. Not concerned with how the behavior developed, just in fixing it focusing on current environment Baseline measure of the behavior Define behavior in precise terms so it can be measured Self-monitoring Behavior modification - Operant Functional analysis Change contingencies Aversion therapy Classical/operant Biofeedback - Operant Systematic desensitization Classical Systematic desensitization Classical Changing expectancies Social learning theory Strengths of behaviorism/social learning Comprehensive Parsimonious Straightforward Precisely defined, testable Supported by research Leads to effective treatment strategies with built-in methods for testing outcomes Appeals to our egalitarianism Has had a strong impact on modern psychological thought High applied value Criticisms of behaviorism/social learning Too narrow a description of human experience and personality

7 Rejection of free will is troubling Minimizes heredity Certain behaviors are hard to condition Much work done with animals, not people may not translate RESEARCH FINDINGS Gender role behavior Gender-role behavior is operantly conditioned and modeled Gender-types and adjustment congruence model androgyny (Bem) masculinity Gender-types and relationships Behavioral - 7