Syntactic Theory: A Formal Introduction

Transcription

1 Syntactic Theory: A Formal Introduction Second Edition Ivan A. Sag Thomas Wasow Emily M. Bender August 10, 2006 CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE AND INFORMATION

2 Copyright c 2003 CSLI Publications Center for the Study of Language and Information Leland Stanford Junior University Printed in the United States Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sag, Ivan A., 1949 Syntactic theory / by Ivan A. Sag, Thomas Wasow, and Emily M. Bender. 2nd ed. p. cm. (CSLI lecture notes ; no. 152) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN (alk. paper) ISBN (alk. paper) ISBN (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Grammar, Comparative and general Syntax. I. Wasow, Thomas. II. Bender, Emily M., 1973 III. Title. IV. Series. P291.S dc CIP The acid-free paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z CSLI was founded in 1983 by researchers from Stanford University, SRI International, and Xerox PARC to further the research and development of integrated theories of language, information, and computation. CSLI headquarters and CSLI Publications are located on the campus of Stanford University. CSLI Publications reports new developments in the study of language, information, and computation. Please visit our web site at for comments on this and other titles, as well as for changes and corrections by the authors and publisher.

3 Contents Preface xiii 1 Introduction Two Conceptions of Grammar An Extended Example: Reflexive and Nonreflexive Pronouns Remarks on the History of the Study of Grammar Why Study Syntax? Phenomena Addressed Summary Further Reading Problems 19 2 Some Simple Theories of Grammar Introduction Two Simplistic Syntactic Theories Context-Free Phrase Structure Grammar Applying Context-Free Grammar Trees Revisited CFG as a Theory of Natural Language Grammar Problems with CFG Transformational Grammar What Are Grammars Theories Of? Summary Further Reading Problems 44 vii

4 viii / Syntactic Theory 3 Analyzing Features of Grammatical Categories Introduction Feature Structures The Linguistic Application of Feature Structures Phrase Structure Trees Summary The Chapter 3 Grammar Further Reading Problems 88 4 Complex Feature Values Introduction Complements Specifiers Applying the Rules The Valence Principle Agreement Revisited Coordination and Agreement Case Marking Summary The Chapter 4 Grammar Further Reading Problems Semantics Introduction Semantics and Pragmatics Linguistic Meaning How Semantics Fits In The Semantic Principles Modification Coordination Revisited Quantifiers Summary The Chapter 5 Grammar Further Reading Problems 161

5 Contents / ix 6 How the Grammar Works A Factorization of Grammatical Information Examples Appendix: Well-Formed Structures Problems Binding Theory Introduction Binding Theory of Chapter 1 Revisited A Feature-Based Formulation of Binding Theory Two Problems for Binding Theory Examples Imperatives and Binding The Argument Realization Principle Revisited Summary Changes to the Grammar Further Reading Problems The Structure of the Lexicon Introduction Lexemes Default Constraint Inheritance Some Lexemes of Our Grammar The FORM Feature Lexical Rules Inflectional Rules Derivational Rules Summary Further Reading Problems Realistic Grammar Introduction The Grammar So Far Constraint-Based Lexicalism Modeling Performance A Performance-Plausible Competence Grammar Universal Grammar: A Mental Organ? Summary Further Reading Problems 309

6 x / Syntactic Theory 10 The Passive Construction Introduction Basic Data The Passive Lexical Rule The Verb Be in Passive Sentences An Example Summary Changes to the Grammar Further Reading Problems Nominal Types: Dummies and Idioms Introduction Be Revisited The Existential There Extraposition Idioms Summary Changes to the Grammar Further Reading Problems Infinitival Complements Introduction The Infinitival To The Verb Continue The Verb Try Subject Raising and Subject Control Object Raising and Object Control Summary Changes to the Grammar Further Reading Problems Auxiliary Verbs Introduction The Basic Analysis The NICE Properties Auxiliary Do Analyzing the NICE Properties 403

7 Contents / xi 13.6 Summary Changes to the Grammar Further Reading Problems Long-Distance Dependencies Introduction Some Data Formulating the Problem Formulating a Solution Subject Gaps The Coordinate Structure Constraint Summary Changes to the Grammar Further Reading Problems Variation in the English Auxiliary System Introduction Auxiliary Behavior in the Main Verb Have African American Vernacular English Summary Further Reading Problems Sign-Based Construction Grammar Taking Stock Multiple Inheritance Hierarchies Words and Phrases as Signs Constructions Phrasal Constructions of Our Grammar Locality Summary 489 Appendix A: Summary of the Grammar 491 A.1 The Type Hierarchy 491 A.2 Feature Declarations and Type Constraints 493 A.3 Abbreviations 501 A.4 The Grammar Rules 501 A.5 Lexical Rules 503 A.6 The Basic Lexicon 509 A.7 Well-Formed Structures 518

8 xii / Syntactic Theory Appendix B: Related Grammatical Theories 525 B.1 Historical Sketch of Transformational Grammar 528 B.2 Constraint-Based Lexicalist Grammar 532 B.3 Three Other Grammatical Frameworks 539 B.4 Summary 542 Answers to Exercises 543 Glossary 555 References 571 Index 585