General Introduction p. 1 Environmental technology p. 1 The beginning p. 1 The environmental effects of the oil industry p. 2 Air emissions p.

Transcription

1 General Introduction p. 1 Environmental technology p. 1 The beginning p. 1 The environmental effects of the oil industry p. 2 Air emissions p. 2 Water management p. 5 Waste management p. 7 Technology used in the oil industry p. 10 Pollution control p. 10 Pollution prevention p. 12 Oil Industry future: design for the environment p. 13 Design out the production problems p. 13 Summary p. 15 References p. 15 Environmental Control Technology for Oilfield Processes p. 17 Introduction p. 17 Environmental control technology p. 20 Evolution of environmentally controlled oilfield processes p. 21 Scope and characteristics of oilfield ECT p. 23 Methodology of ECT design p. 25 ECT analysis of drilling process p. 28 Mechanisms of drilling waste discharge p. 28 Sources of drilling waste toxicity p. 36 Waste generation mechanisms in petroleum production p. 38 Sources of toxicity in produced water p. 42 References p. 48 Environmental Control of Well Integrity p. 53 Introduction p. 53 Mechanism of cement seal failures p. 53 Improved cementing for annular integrity p. 56 Cement pulsation after placement p. 57 Integrity of injection wells p. 60 Measurements of well integrity p. 63 Sustained casinghead pressure p. 65 Rig methods for SCP isolation p. 66 Rig-less technology for SCP isolation p. 68 References p. 71 Environmental Control of Drilling Fluids and Produced Water p. 77 Control of drilling fluid volume p. 77 Control of mud dispersibility p. 77 Improved solids-control-closed-loop systems p. 79

2 Dewatering of drilling fluids: 'dry' drilling location p. 82 Control of drilling fluid toxicity p. 85 Drilling fluid toxicity testing p. 85 Low-toxicity substitutes p. 87 Synthetic base drilling fluids p. 88 Source separation - drill cuttings de-oiling p. 90 Control of produced water volume p. 93 Source reduction - water shut-off technology p. 94 Source separation-downhole oil/gas/water separation p. 96 Source reduction with downhole water sink p. 99 Control of produced water pollutants p. 103 Oil-free water from DWS drainage-production systems p. 104 Deoiling of produced water p. 107 Removal of dissolved organics from produced water p. 111 Produced water salinity reduction p. 112 References p. 113 Oilfield Waste Disposal Control p. 123 Introduction p. 123 Oilfield waste disposal to land p. 124 Impact of oilfield pit contaminants p. 124 Oilfield pit sampling and evaluation p. 126 Oilfield pit closure: liquid phase p. 127 Oilfield pit closure: solid phase p. 127 Subsurface waste disposal to wells p. 129 Description of slurry injection process of muds and cuttings p. 133 Slurry fracture injection of muds and cuttings p. 139 Properties of injected slurries p. 144 Environmental implications of subsurface slurry injection p. 145 Periodic injection to multiple fractures p. 147 References p. 151 Drilling and Production Discharges in the Marine Environment p. 155 Introduction p. 155 Nature of offshore discharges p. 157 Produced water p. 157 Drilling waste p. 158 Magnitude of waste discharges p. 160 Accidental discharges p. 161 Wastes that require handling during site abandonment p. 164 Potential impacts on the environment p. 165 Introduction p. 165 Potential impacts from produced water p. 166

3 Potential impacts from drilling waste p. 167 Potential impacts from treating chemicals p. 168 Potential impacts from accidental discharges p. 168 Regulatory approaches p. 170 Regulations for waste discharges p. 170 OSPAR agreements and national regulations for the OSPAR area p. 171 United states regulations p. 172 Comparing and contrasting OSPAR and United States EPA regulations p. 174 Russian and former Soviet Republics regulations p. 175 Other regulatory systems p. 175 Accidental discharges p. 175 Should the release be re-mediated? p. 184 Sources of data on discharges to the marine environment p. 185 References p. 186 Decommissioning of Offshore Oil and Gas Installations p. 189 Introduction p. 189 Legal framework of platform decommissioning p. 190 Planning p. 195 Abandonment phases p. 195 Well abandonment p. 196 Preabandonment surveys/data gathering p. 196 Engineering p. 197 Decommissioning p. 199 Structure removal p. 201 Disposal p. 209 Site clearance p. 211 Conclusion p. 212 References p. 212 Tanker Design: Recent Developments from an Environmental Perspective p. 215 Introduction p. 215 Tanker accidents p. 216 Tanker design p. 219 New tanker design standards: the USA takes the lead p. 220 New tanker designs: the international debate in the early 1990s p. 221 Some developments since the adoption of the new MARPOL regulations in 1992 p. 225 Some observations regarding the effectiveness of MARPOL's double hull requirements p. 226 Epilogue p. 227 References p. 228 Pipeline Technology p. 229 Introduction p. 229 Environmental pressures p. 231

4 Onshore pipelines p. 232 Design p. 233 Construction p. 237 Operation p. 250 Decommissioning p. 256 Offshore pipelines p. 256 Design p. 256 Construction p. 258 Operation p. 265 Decommissioning p. 267 Pipeline landfalls p. 267 Design p. 270 Construction p. 279 References p. 279 Environmental Management and Technology in Oil Refineries p. 281 Function of an oil refinery p. 281 Overview p. 282 Control of atmospheric emissions p. 283 Minimizing combustion-related emissions p. 284 Minimizing flare-related emissions p. 289 Minimizing fugitive emissions p. 289 Odour control p. 292 Sulphur removal and recovery p. 293 Control of aqueous emissions p. 295 Source control p. 296 Effluent treatment p. 298 Soil and groundwater protection p. 301 Source control p. 301 Monitoring p. 302 Remediation p. 303 Preventive techniques p. 303 Control of solid wastes p. 304 Source control p. 304 Waste treatment p. 306 Waste disposal p. 308 Recycling to minimize waste p. 311 Reuse on-site p. 311 Off-site recycling p. 311 Environmental management p. 312 Environmental control p. 312 Environmental training p. 313

5 Environmental auditing p. 314 References p. 314 Distribution, Marketing and Use of Petroleum Fuels p. 315 Introduction p. 315 Main refinery product types p. 315 Protection of the environment p. 317 The atmosphere p. 317 Sea waters: compliance with maritime regulations p. 319 Soil and groundwater p. 319 Distributing the products p. 320 Distribution systems p. 320 Anti-pollution controls p. 322 The atmosphere p. 322 The high seas p. 322 Coastal and inland waterways p. 324 Soil and groundwater p. 325 Marketing the products p. 327 Large industrial customer installations p. 327 Small industrial and domestic customers p. 328 Service stations p. 328 Environmental technologies related to product use p. 329 Fuels p. 329 Marine diesel engines and fuels p. 329 Fuels for large industrial power plants p. 332 Fuels for small industrial and domestic installations p. 332 Aircraft engines and fuels p. 334 Engines for rail transport p. 335 Automotive engines p. 335 Into the next millenium p. 347 Further reading p. 347 Lubricants p. 351 Introduction p. 351 Performance p. 353 Components p. 353 Base fluids p. 354 Mineral oils p. 354 Synthetic base oils p. 356 Polyol esters p. 356 Poly-a-olefins p. 356 Hydrocracked mineral oils p. 357 Additives p. 357

6 Actual environmental effects p. 358 Biodegradability p. 359 Biodegradation is not necessary in a lubricant p. 360 A biodegradable lubricant will encourage dumping at the expense of collection and disposal p. 360 A biodegradable lubricant will degrade in the engine p. 360 A biodegradable lubricant will result in high concentrations of toxic residues that are detrimental to the environment Biodegradation is not necessary, as motor manufacturers are now producing sealed lubricant systems p. 361 p. 361 Collection and recycling of used oils p. 361 Conclusion p. 363 References p. 364 Climate Change Scenarios and Their Potential Impact on World Agriculture p. 367 What causes the climate system to change? p. 367 Past climatic changes p. 369 Anthropogenic forcing of the climate system p. 372 Future changes in anthropogenic forcing p. 374 Implications of SRES scenarios on global climate p. 375 Temperature p. 376 Precipitation p. 377 Sea level rise p. 378 Mitigation possibilities within the agricultural sector p. 379 Implications of SRES scenarios on regional climate p. 379 Europe p. 379 North America p. 385 Impacts of future climate change on agriculture p. 385 Europe p. 386 North America p. 387 References p. 388 Color Plates p. 391 Index p. 397 Table of Contents provided by Blackwell's Book Services and R.R. Bowker. Used with permission.