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1 FALLACIES By Marcin Zaleski A fallacy is an argument that is unsound. However, even if an argument is logically flawed, it will often persuade us, because on the surface it appears correct in form and content. Fallacies are meant to deceive us and that is why their name is English is probably derived from the Greek word phelos, meaning deceitful and which is thought to be related to the word fail. What should one do in order to not fail in his/ her reasoning in real life and in debate? One answer could be that it is imperative to use one s critical thinking skills in order to produce good arguments and to study ways in which one can reason correctly. In fact, many logicians have asserted that thinkers should concerns themselves with the study and practice of correct reasoning rather than faulty reasoning. However, familiarity with common logical errors helps us guard ourselves against fallacious thinking - not only in other s arguments but also in our own. If we were to use an analogy and compare critical thinking to reading a map, fallacies would be the stop and dead end signs on the road. They will not get us too far on our road to success in reasoning (for this we need to master the rules of good reasoning) but they will warn us against potential dangers and pitfalls and help us in getting safely to our destination. Logicians and critical thinkers of all periods have studied fallacies and attempted to come up with their classification. The first one to do so was a Greek philosopher Aristotle. He came up with the dichotomous division into fallacies related to the ambiguity of language and fallacies that had their source outside of language (all the other fallacies). This material follows the division offered by S. Morris Engel, who in his book With Good Reason (Bedford / St.Martin s, 6th Edition, 2000, p. 95), argues that in fact all fallacies have their source in some dimension of language and proposes a threefold division which corresponds to the three ways in which language, used in fallacious arguments, can be seen as a source of error. The first division refers to the fallacies of ambiguity in which the meaning of the words employed is a source of error, the second refers to the fallacies of presumption, where the error stems from the way in which the fallacious arguments contain the language similar to the correct arguments (and in a way make as presume that the reasoning must be correct as well) and the third category, fallacies of relevance in which irrelevant language or statements are introduced to produce emotional rather than logical appeal. When teaching fallacies to debaters, remember that it is far more important for a debater to understand the nature of a fallacy, to be able to analyze it and respond to it than remember the name of it (especially when it is Latin). It is also important to bear in mind that fallacies are related to arguments and these take place in a social context of a discussion, debate or any other exchange of ideas. Very often the strength of an argument will depend on a context in which it was used rather than on its objective merit. The same is true about fallacies - in many aspects of our life, some of the fallacies may be in fact legitimate arguments. This is why before rejecting something as a fallacy some time must be spent on analyzing the context in which it was presented and providing an explanation why a given argument 18 International Debate Education Association

2 is faulty. The list below contains some of the most often met fallacies but it is far from being exclusive. Welcome to the world of fallacies! FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY Fallacies of ambiguity are arguments that are unsound since they contain words that, either singly or in combination, can be understood in more than one sense. If an ambiguity is present in an argument (or debate resolution) it is always weakened. The ambiguity may be present in the fact that one word can mean two different things in different contexts, or in a sentence structure, stress or tone used (accent) or the confusion between the collective and distributive sense of terms. Ambiguity is dangerous in debate, legal arguments or science but some of the most beautiful poems have been written and are deeply appreciated because of the ambiguity of terms they contain. Below are three examples of fallacy of ambiguity: Person A: Greed is the mother of all evil, we should respect our mothers, therefore we should respect greed. Equivocation- an ambiguity is caused by a shift between to legitimate meanings of a term. Person A: Poland will win in the World Cup this year. Person B: Are they such a good team? Person A: Yes, our goalkeeper plays for Liverpool, the striker and two midfielders play for Juventus Turin and The fallacy of composition - the conclusion is drawn about a whole based on the features of its elements (the assumption that what is true about a member of a group must also be true of the whole group). Person A: That friend of yours must be really rich. Person B: Why do you think so? Person A: He is from the US and it is one of the richest countries in the world. The fallacy of division- what is assumed to be true of the whole is also assumed to be true of its part. FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION Fallacies of presumption are arguments that are unsound because of the unfounded or unproven assumptions on which they are based. Conclusions of arguments stem from the premises (assumptions). Sometimes, however, questionable assumptions escape our notice since the reasoning that is used to lead us to the conclusions is apparently sound. Below are examples of nine fallacies of presumption. Person A: Marijuana should remain illegal. Person B: I strongly disagree with you. It is not harmful and people should be given free choice if they want to smoke marijuana or not. Person A: If marijuana were not harmful it would not be prohibited by law. Begging the question (circular argument)-one of the premises includes the claim (or assumption) that the conclusion is true. Example 1: Person A: Rap is one of the reasons for the increase of violence in inner cities. Person B: Maybe Rap music is a response to the violence Person A: No, I am sure that it is Rap that causes violence! Example 2: Person A: The Government coalition passed the law about tax cuts and a year later we are in a quagmire. Person B: Maybe there are other reasons for the economic slow-down - global recession? Person A: No, it is the government and its stupid laws! False cause - the arguer confuses cause with effect, or creates International Debate Education Association 19

3 a causal relationship where such does not exist. Politician: Poland will either join NATO or will have to be subjected to the Russian imperialism. False dilemma- the arguer assumes that there are only two options. If one of the claims is true the other one must be false, which is not necessarily the case. Voter: Politician X proposes an income tax of 30% and politician Y proposes an income tax of 20%. I will vote for politician Z who proposes 25% income tax. He must be right. Middle Ground-the arguer chooses the third option only because it is between two extremes. However, in many contexts choosing a middle ground is not a fallacy but in fact a very good idea. In the example above, a debater would have to show some knowledge of economics and economic situation before supporting a given politician. Person A: You should never discuss feminism with any man. Person B: Why? Person A: All the men I know are sexists. Hasty generalization- a conclusion is made based on too few instances. Person A: Marijuana should be legalized. Person B: I disagree- it is a narcotic and narcotics are addictive. Person A: Marijuana is like alcohol and alcohol is legal. False analogy- two things are compared without having enough similarities. A politician: If we allow sex education into schools, soon we we will have to deal with pornography, rape and at schools. Slippery slope-an arguer claims that if one thing happens, another one will happen inevitably without presenting the appropriate evidence Director of admissions: This is a wonderful entry test. Most people will fail it and we will have fewer problems with admissions this year. Red Herring - an irrelevant reason is given to support the conclusion. Student: I will not write my term paper. Teacher: And why is that? Student: Because I know how to write essays. Special pleading- an arguer applies standards and principles toother people of phenomena while exempts himself/herself or a particular case without proper justification (without applying the principle of relevant difference). FALLACIES OF RELEVENCE Fallacies of relevance are arguments in which the premises are not relevant to the conclusion. Usually the irrelevance is an attempt to stir up emotions and thus obscure the picture (they are persuasive since when feelings are high, many things can pass as arguments). Below are examples of nine fallacies of relevance: Person A: I believe it is state s obligation to support the poor. Person B: Of course, you would say that. You are poor and a communist on top of that. Ad hominem (Latin: against the man)- a claim or argument is rejected on the basis of some irrelevant fact about the person present- 20 International Debate Education Association

4 ing the claim. Person A: Taking this medicine will help you to lose weight without any bad side-effects. Person B: How do you know? Person A: That famous actress said so and she is so slim. Appeal to authority- a claim is supported by the claim of an expert whose expertise is dubious. Reasoning from authority can also be a sound type of reasoning. The following conditions must be fulfilled when checking if the expert s opinion can be used: 1. The person has sufficient expertise in the subject. 2. The claim being made is within her area of expertise. 3. There is an adequate degree of agreement of other experts in the field. 4. The person in question is not significantly biased. 5. The area of expertise is a legitimate area of expertise. 6. The authority is identified. Person A: People should first find a good job before getting married and starting a family. Person B: What is your reasoning? Person A: Ask anyone who is married and they will tell you so. Appeal to popular belief - a claim is supported with what constitutes an opinion of many people Sometimes it is a sound reasoning when explaining social habits, customs or taboos. Person A: I am sure that some form of benevolent divine being exists. Person B: What makes you so certain? Person A: If such being did not exits the world would be a terrible place. Appeal to consequences of belief - something must be true on the basis that if it was not true, negative consequences would ensue A politician: You must vote for our party. If you do not vote for us, something bad may happen to you. Appeal to fear - if an arguer does not accept the claim (in the example above- a party s program, it might have negative consequences. A student: I have not submitted my assignment, Professor, because my younger brother was ill. Appeal to pity - an arguer does not provide rational support for the claim but instead appeals to the listeners sympathy. Son: Father, why do you not allow me to live on my own? Father: It is a tradition that the youngest son should live with his parents. Appeal to tradition- an arguer supports the claim by referring to tradition, and argues that something should be the case since it has been considered so for ages. Person A: There must be intelligent life forms on other planets. Person B: There is no evidence that such life forms exist. Person A: But there is also no evidence that such life does not exit. Appeal to ignorance - an arguer making a claim shifts the burden of proof onto the opponent International Debate Education Association 21

5 However, in some context this type of reasoning is accepted - e.g. in court. The defendant is innocent if the prosecution does not prove that he is guilty. Politician A: The government should purchase the new type supersonic fighter jet. Politician B: The cost of the plane is much too high. We should buy the more economical version of the plane. Politician A: You see, the Member of the Parliament would like to see our country defenseless. Straw Man - an arguer distorts the position of her/his opponent to be able to advance stronger arguments against it. EXERCISE Please evaluate the following arguments. Try to decide if they are fallacies or not and explain why. You can name individual fallacies. 1. We all value our privacy, so the state should not interfere with the private lives of its citizens. My private company is by definition a private matter so my state should not investigate if I have paid my taxes on it. 2. The United States is no position to criticize other countries for human rights violation because there are so many instances of human rights violation in the USA. 3. The surgeon general says that smoking is bad for your health, so it is. 4. The government should never bargain with terrorists - once they do they will always have to bargain with terrorists. 5. The people who support a tax increase depend on the government programs funded by taxes so we should disregard their arguments. 6. Gun control laws are wrong because they violate the right to bear arms. 7. People with suicidal tendencies are insane because nobody who is sane would try to kill himself. 8. I know it is troubling to see all those street people begging for money, looking depressed, but remember: if you make bad choices throughout your life, these are the sort of consequences you can expect. 9. Brothers should not marry. 10. Recent polls among people who have been victims of violent crimes or whose relatives have been victims of violent crime show that they support more strict punishment. With the poll results being so clear, what are politicians waiting for? 11. We will either attack Saddam Hussain now or we will face a threat of his biological, chemical or even nuclear attack in the future. 12. Since doctors are allowed to consult each other during complex operations, medical students should be allowed to consult each other during difficult medical exams. 13. If you work hard, you will get good grades (Haven t you heard it somewhere before?) 14. If we do not sentence criminals for life, one of your children may be their next victim! 15. Each of them is such an intelligent person- I do not understand how they came up with such a stupid decision. 16. Polish people should be admitted to the EU ahead other applicant nations because of our tragic history (said by a Pole). 17. The Minister of Education of the present government is incompetent therefore the entire cabinet is incompetent. 18. Marijuana should be legalized. Unlike alcohol it does not make people aggressive. 19. I never allow students to ask questions during my lectures. You allow one to student to ask a question and before you know it all of them want to ask a question and there is no time to finish a lecture. 20. Vegetarian diet cannot be healthy since the majority of people eat meat. 22 International Debate Education Association

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