ON SHANKS ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTING THE CONTINUED FRACTION OF log b a.
|
|
- Leslie Watkins
- 7 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 ON SHANKS ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTING THE CONTINUED FRACTION OF log b a. TERENCE JACKSON AND KEITH MATTHEWS Abstract. We give a more practical variant of Shanks 954 algorithm for computing the continued fraction of log b a, for integers a > b >, using the floor and ceiling functions and an integer parameter c >. The variant, when repeated for a few values of c = 0 r, enables one to guess if log b a is rational and to find approximately r partial quotients.. Shanks algorithm In his article [], Shanks gave an algorithm for computing the partial quotients of log b a, where a > b are positive integers greater than. Construct two sequences a 0 = a, a = b, a 2,... and n 0, n, n 2,..., where the a i are positive rationals and the n i are positive integers, by the following rule: If i and a i > a i >, then (.) (.2) a ni i a i < a ni + i a i+ = a i /a ni i. Clearly (.) and (.2) imply a i > a i+. Also (.) implies a i a /ni i i and hence by induction on i 0, (.3) (.4) Also by induction on j 0, a i+ a /n0 ni 0. a 2j = a r 0/a s, a 2j+ = a u /a v 0, where r and u are positive integers and s and v are non negative integers. Two possibilities arise: (i) a r+ = for some r. Then equations (.4) imply a relation a q 0 = ap for positive integers p and q and so log a a 0 = p/q. (ii) a i+ > for all i. In this case the decreasing sequence {a i } tends to a. Also (.3) implies a =, unless perhaps n i = for all sufficiently large i; but then (.2) becomes a i+ = a i /a i and hence a = a/a =. If a i > a i >, then from (.) we have log ai (.5) n i =. log a i Let x i = log ai+ a i if a i+ >. Then we have Lemma. If a i+2 >, then (.6) x i = n i + /x i+. 99 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary D09. for
2 2 TERENCE JACKSON AND KEITH MATTHEWS Proof. From (.2), we have (.7) (.8) (.9) from which (.6) follows. log a i+2 = log a i n i log a i+ = log a i log a i+ n i log a i+ log a i+ log a i+2 log a i+2 = x i x i+ n i x i+, From Lemma. and (.5), we deduce Lemma 2. (a) If log a a 0 is irrational, then x i = n i + /x i+ for all i 0. (b) If log a a 0 is rational, with a r+ =, then { ni + /x x i = i+ if 0 i < r, n r if i = r. In view of the equation log a a 0 = x 0, Lemma 2 leads immediately to Corollary. (.0) log a a 0 = { [n0, n,... ] if log a a 0 is irrational, [n 0, n,..., n r ] if log a a 0 is rational and a r+ =. Remark. It is an easy exercise to show that for j 0, (.) a 2j = a q2j 2 0 /a p2j 2, a 2j+ = a p2j a q2j 0 where p k /q k is the k th convergent to log a a 0. Example. log 2 0: Here a 0 = 0, a = 2. Then 2 3 < 0 < 2 4, so n 0 = 3 and a 2 = 0/2 3 =.25. Further,.25 3 < 2 <.25 4, so n = 3 and a 3 = 2/.25 3 =.024. Also, <.25 <.024 0, so n 2 = 9 and a 4 =.25/ = / = Continuing we obtain Table and log 2 0 = [3, 3, 9, 2, 2, 4, 6, 2,,,... ].
3 ON SHANKS ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTING THE CONTINUED FRACTION OF log b a. 3 Table i n i a i p i/q i / 3 2 0/ / / / / / / / / Some Pseudocode In Table 2 we present pseudocode for the Shanks algorithm. It soon becomes impractical to perform the calculations in multiprecision arithmetic, as the numerators and denominators a i grow rapidly. If we truncate the decimal expansions of the a[i] to r places and represent a positive rational a as g(a)/0 r, where g(a) = 0 r a, the ratio aa/bb will be calculated as 0 r g(aa)/g(bb). Working explicitly in integers, using the g(a), then results in algorithm, also depicted in Table 2, with c = 0 r, where int(x,y) equals x/y, when x and y are integers. As shown in the next section, the A[i] decrease strictly until they reach c. Also m[0]=n[0] and we can expect a number of the initial m[i] will be partial quotients. Naturally, the larger we take c, the more partial quotients will be produced. 3. Formal description of algorithm We show in Theorem 2. below, that algorithm will give the correct partial quotients when log a a 0 is rational and otherwise gives a parameterised sequence of integers which tend to the correct partial quotients when log a a 0 is irrational. Algorithm is now explicitly described. We define two integer sequences {A i,c }, i = 0,..., l(c) and {m j,c }, j = 0,..., l(c) 2, as follows. Let A 0,c = c a 0, A,c = c a. Then if i and A i,c > A i,c > c, we define m i,c and A i+,c by means of an intermediate sequence {B i,r,c }, defined for r 0, by B i,0,c = A i,c and cbi,r,c (3.) B i,r+,c =, r 0. A i,c Then c B i,r+,c < B i,r,c, if B i,r,c A i,c > c and hence there is a unique integer m = m i,c such that B i,m,c < A i,c B i,m,c. Then we define A i+,c = B i,m,c. Hence A i+,c c and the sequence {A i,c } decreases strictly until A l(c),c = c. There are two possible outcomes, depending on whether or not log b (a) is rational:
4 4 TERENCE JACKSON AND KEITH MATTHEWS Table 2 Shanks algorithm algorithm input: integers a>b> input: integers a>b>, c> output: n[0],n[],... output: m[0],m[],... s:= 0 s:= 0 a[0]:= a; a[]:= b A[0]:= a*c; A[]:= b*c aa:= a[0]; bb:= a[] aa:= A[0]; bb:= A[] while(bb > ){ while(bb > c){ i:=0 i:=0 while(aa bb){ while(aa bb){ aa:= aa/bb aa:= int(aa*c,bb) i:= i+ i:= i+ } } a[s+2]:= aa A[s+2]:= aa n[s]:= i m[s]:= i t:= bb t:= bb bb:= aa bb:= aa aa:= t aa:= t s:= s+ s:= s+ } } Theorem 2. () log a a 0 is a rational number p/q, p > q, gcd(p, q) =. Then (a) a 0 = d p, a = d q for some positive integer d; (b) if p/q = [n 0,..., n r ], where n r > if r >, then (i) A r+,c = c, a r+ = ; (ii) A i,c = c a i for 0 i r + ; (iii) m i,c = n i for 0 i r. (2) log a a 0 is irrational. Then (a) m 0,c = n 0 ; (b) l(c) and for fixed i, A i,c /c a i as c and m i,c = n i for all large c. Proof. (a) follows from the equation a p = aq 0. (b) is also straightforward on noticing that a i is a power of d and that we are implicitly performing Euclid s algorithm on the pair (p, q). For 2(a), we have (3.2) a n0 < a 0 < a n0+ and A 0,c = c a 0, A,c = c a. Also by induction on 0 r n 0, (3.3) B,r,c ca n0 r, B,r,c ca 0 (3.4) a r. Inequality (3.3) with r n 0 gives B,r,c A,c, while inequality (3.4) with r = n 0 gives B,n0,c ca 0 a n0 < ca = A,c,
5 ON SHANKS ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTING THE CONTINUED FRACTION OF log b a. 5 by inequality (3.2). Hence m 0,c = n 0. For 2(b), we use induction on i and assume l(c) i holds for all large c and that A i,c /c a i and A i,c /c a i as c. This is clearly true when i =. By properties of the integer part symbol, equation (3.) gives (3.5) c r A i,c A r i,c ( cr A r i,c ) c A i,c for r 0. Hence for r < n i, inequalities (3.5) give < B i,r,c cr A i,c A r. i,c B i,r,c /c a i /a r i a i /a ni i > a i. Then, because A i,c /c a i, it follows that B i,r,c > A i,c for all large c. Also B i,ni,c/c a i /a ni i < a i, so B i,ni,c < A i,c for all large c. Hence m i,c = n i for all large c. Also A i+,c = B i,ni,c > c, so l(c) > i+ for all large c. Moreover A i+,c /c a i /a ni i = a i+ and the induction goes through. Example 3. Table 3 lists the sequences m 0,c,..., m l(c) 2,c for c = 2 u, u =,..., 30, when a 0 = 3, a = 2. Table 3,,,,,,,,,,,,2,,,,2,,,,2,3,,,,2,2,2,,,,2,2,2,,,,,2,2,2,,2,,,,2,2,3,2,3,,,,2,2,3,2,,,,2,2,3,,2,,,, 2,,,,2,2,3,,3,,,3,,,,,2,2,3,,4, 3,,,,,2,2,3,,4,, 9,,,,,2,2,3,,5,24,,2,,,,2,2,3,,5, 3,,, 2,7,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,,, 5,3,,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2, 2,, 3,,6,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,5,, 6,2,,,2,2,3,,5, 2, 9,5,,2,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,3,,,, 6,, 2, 2,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,7,2, 7,8,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,9,,49,2,,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,22,4, 8,3, 4,,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,22,2,,3,, 3, 8,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,22,, 6,3,,, 3, 4, 2,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,23,2,,, 2,,2,7,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,23,3, 2,2, 2, 2,, 3, 2,,,,2,2,3,,5, 2,23,2,,7, 2, 2,4,,, 6, In fact log 2 3 = [,,, 2, 2, 3,, 5, 2, 23, 2,... ].
6 6 TERENCE JACKSON AND KEITH MATTHEWS 4. A heuristic algorithm We can replace the x function in equation (3.) by x, the least integer exceeding x. This produces an algorithm with similar properties to algorithm, with integer sequences {A i,c }, i = 0,..., l (c) and {m j,c }, j = 0,..., l (c) 2. Here A 0,c = A 0,c = a 0 c, A,c = A,c = a c and m 0,c = m 0,c = n 0. Then if i and A i,c > A i,c > c, we define m i,c and A i+,c by means of an intermediate sequence {B i,r,c }, defined for r 0, by B i,0,c = A i,c and (4.) and B i,r+,c = cb i,r,c A i,c Then c B i,r+,c < B i,r,c, if B i,r,c A i,c > c. For cb i,r,c A i,c B i,r+,c cb i,r,c A i,c, r B i,r,c cb i,r,c + A i,c A i,cb i,r,c A i,c A i,c c B i,r,c. The last inequality is certainly true if B i,r,c A i,c > c. Hence there is a unique integer m = m i,c such that B i,m,c < A i,c B i,m,c. Then we define A i+,c = B i,m,c. Hence A i+,c c and the sequence {A i,c } decreases strictly until A l (c),c = c. If we perform the two computations simultaneously, the common initial elements of the sequences {m j,c } and {m k,c } are likely to be partial quotients of log b(a). With c = 0 r we expect roughly r partial quotients to be produced. If l(c) = l (c) and A j,c = A j,c and m j,c = m j,c for j = 0,..., l(c) 2, then log b a is likely to be rational. In practice, to get a feeling of certainty regarding the output when c = 0 r, we also run the algorithm for c = 0 t, r 5 t r + 5. Example 4. Table 4 lists the common values of m i,c and m i,c, when a = 3, b = 2 and c = 2 r, r 3. It seems likely that only partial quotients are produced for all r. Example 5. Table 5 lists the common values of m i,c and m i,c, when a = 34, b = 2 and c = 0 r, r 20. Partial quotients are not always produced, as is seen from lines 9,4 and Acknowledgement The second author is grateful for the hospitality provided by the School of Mathematical Sciences, ANU, where research for part of this paper was carried out.
7 ON SHANKS ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTING THE CONTINUED FRACTION OF log b a. 7 Table 4. a = 3, b = 2, c = 2 r, r 3. : 2: 3:,, 4:,, 5:,,,2 6:,,,2 7:,,,2,2 8:,,,2,2 9:,,,2,2 0:,,,2,2 :,,,2,2 2:,,,2,2 3:,,,2,2,3, 4:,,,2,2,3, 5:,,,2,2,3, 6:,,,2,2,3,,5 7:,,,2,2,3,,5 8:,,,2,2,3,,5 9:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 20:,,,2,2,3,,5 2:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 22:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 23:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 24:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 25:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 26:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 27:,,,2,2,3,,5,2 28:,,,2,2,3,,5,2,23 29:,,,2,2,3,,5,2,23 30:,,,2,2,3,,5,2,23,2 3:,,,2,2,3,,5,2,23,2 Table 5. a = 34, b = 2, c = 0 r, r =,..., 20. :,2,2 2:,2,2,, 3:,2,2,,,2 4:,2,2,,,2 5:,2,2,,,2,3, 6:,2,2,,,2,3,,8, 7:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,, 8:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2 9:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,3,3,2,32,7 0:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2, :,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2, 2:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2, 3:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3 4:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3,3,3 5:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3,3,2 6:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3,3,2,2 7:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3,3,2,2,8,,,,, 8:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3,3,2,2,7, 9:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3,3,2,2,7, 20:,2,2,,,2,3,,8,,,2,2,,2,,3,3,2,2,7, References. D. Shanks, A logarithm algorithm, Math. Tables and Other Aids to Computation 8 (954) DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, UNIVERSITY OF YORK, HESLINGTON. YORK YO05DD, ENGLAND address: thj@york.ac.uk DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS, UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND, BRISBANE, AUSTRALIA, address: krm@maths.uq.edu.au
Continued Fractions and the Euclidean Algorithm
Continued Fractions and the Euclidean Algorithm Lecture notes prepared for MATH 326, Spring 997 Department of Mathematics and Statistics University at Albany William F Hammond Table of Contents Introduction
More informationGREATEST COMMON DIVISOR
DEFINITION: GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR The greatest common divisor (gcd) of a and b, denoted by (a, b), is the largest common divisor of integers a and b. THEOREM: If a and b are nonzero integers, then their
More informationa 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + + a 1n x n = b 1 a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + + a 2n x n = b 2.
Chapter 1 LINEAR EQUATIONS 1.1 Introduction to linear equations A linear equation in n unknowns x 1, x,, x n is an equation of the form a 1 x 1 + a x + + a n x n = b, where a 1, a,..., a n, b are given
More informationCS 103X: Discrete Structures Homework Assignment 3 Solutions
CS 103X: Discrete Structures Homework Assignment 3 s Exercise 1 (20 points). On well-ordering and induction: (a) Prove the induction principle from the well-ordering principle. (b) Prove the well-ordering
More informationMATH 289 PROBLEM SET 4: NUMBER THEORY
MATH 289 PROBLEM SET 4: NUMBER THEORY 1. The greatest common divisor If d and n are integers, then we say that d divides n if and only if there exists an integer q such that n = qd. Notice that if d divides
More informationCONTINUED FRACTIONS AND PELL S EQUATION. Contents 1. Continued Fractions 1 2. Solution to Pell s Equation 9 References 12
CONTINUED FRACTIONS AND PELL S EQUATION SEUNG HYUN YANG Abstract. In this REU paper, I will use some important characteristics of continued fractions to give the complete set of solutions to Pell s equation.
More informationZero: If P is a polynomial and if c is a number such that P (c) = 0 then c is a zero of P.
MATH 11011 FINDING REAL ZEROS KSU OF A POLYNOMIAL Definitions: Polynomial: is a function of the form P (x) = a n x n + a n 1 x n 1 + + a x + a 1 x + a 0. The numbers a n, a n 1,..., a 1, a 0 are called
More informationArithmetic Coding: Introduction
Data Compression Arithmetic coding Arithmetic Coding: Introduction Allows using fractional parts of bits!! Used in PPM, JPEG/MPEG (as option), Bzip More time costly than Huffman, but integer implementation
More informationLecture 13: Factoring Integers
CS 880: Quantum Information Processing 0/4/0 Lecture 3: Factoring Integers Instructor: Dieter van Melkebeek Scribe: Mark Wellons In this lecture, we review order finding and use this to develop a method
More informationContinued Fractions. Darren C. Collins
Continued Fractions Darren C Collins Abstract In this paper, we discuss continued fractions First, we discuss the definition and notation Second, we discuss the development of the subject throughout history
More informationSIMPLIFYING SQUARE ROOTS
40 (8-8) Chapter 8 Powers and Roots 8. SIMPLIFYING SQUARE ROOTS In this section Using the Product Rule Rationalizing the Denominator Simplified Form of a Square Root In Section 8. you learned to simplify
More informationMATH10040 Chapter 2: Prime and relatively prime numbers
MATH10040 Chapter 2: Prime and relatively prime numbers Recall the basic definition: 1. Prime numbers Definition 1.1. Recall that a positive integer is said to be prime if it has precisely two positive
More informationLecture 3: Finding integer solutions to systems of linear equations
Lecture 3: Finding integer solutions to systems of linear equations Algorithmic Number Theory (Fall 2014) Rutgers University Swastik Kopparty Scribe: Abhishek Bhrushundi 1 Overview The goal of this lecture
More informationSection 1.1 Real Numbers
. Natural numbers (N):. Integer numbers (Z): Section. Real Numbers Types of Real Numbers,, 3, 4,,... 0, ±, ±, ±3, ±4, ±,... REMARK: Any natural number is an integer number, but not any integer number is
More informationMath Review. for the Quantitative Reasoning Measure of the GRE revised General Test
Math Review for the Quantitative Reasoning Measure of the GRE revised General Test www.ets.org Overview This Math Review will familiarize you with the mathematical skills and concepts that are important
More informationAn example of a computable
An example of a computable absolutely normal number Verónica Becher Santiago Figueira Abstract The first example of an absolutely normal number was given by Sierpinski in 96, twenty years before the concept
More informationHOMEWORK 5 SOLUTIONS. n!f n (1) lim. ln x n! + xn x. 1 = G n 1 (x). (2) k + 1 n. (n 1)!
Math 7 Fall 205 HOMEWORK 5 SOLUTIONS Problem. 2008 B2 Let F 0 x = ln x. For n 0 and x > 0, let F n+ x = 0 F ntdt. Evaluate n!f n lim n ln n. By directly computing F n x for small n s, we obtain the following
More information26 Integers: Multiplication, Division, and Order
26 Integers: Multiplication, Division, and Order Integer multiplication and division are extensions of whole number multiplication and division. In multiplying and dividing integers, the one new issue
More informationCrosswalk Directions:
Crosswalk Directions: UMS Standards for College Readiness to 2007 MLR 1. Use a (yes), an (no), or a (partially) to indicate the extent to which the standard, performance indicator, or descriptor of the
More informationSection IV.21. The Field of Quotients of an Integral Domain
IV.21 Field of Quotients 1 Section IV.21. The Field of Quotients of an Integral Domain Note. This section is a homage to the rational numbers! Just as we can start with the integers Z and then build the
More informationCOMMUTATIVE RINGS. Definition: A domain is a commutative ring R that satisfies the cancellation law for multiplication:
COMMUTATIVE RINGS Definition: A commutative ring R is a set with two operations, addition and multiplication, such that: (i) R is an abelian group under addition; (ii) ab = ba for all a, b R (commutative
More informationFACTORISATION YEARS. A guide for teachers - Years 9 10 June 2011. The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project
9 10 YEARS The Improving Mathematics Education in Schools (TIMES) Project FACTORISATION NUMBER AND ALGEBRA Module 33 A guide for teachers - Years 9 10 June 2011 Factorisation (Number and Algebra : Module
More informationLesson Plan. N.RN.3: Use properties of rational and irrational numbers.
N.RN.3: Use properties of rational irrational numbers. N.RN.3: Use Properties of Rational Irrational Numbers Use properties of rational irrational numbers. 3. Explain why the sum or product of two rational
More informationOn the generation of elliptic curves with 16 rational torsion points by Pythagorean triples
On the generation of elliptic curves with 16 rational torsion points by Pythagorean triples Brian Hilley Boston College MT695 Honors Seminar March 3, 2006 1 Introduction 1.1 Mazur s Theorem Let C be a
More informationTHREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
Chapter 8 THREE DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY 8.1 Introduction In this chapter we present a vector algebra approach to three dimensional geometry. The aim is to present standard properties of lines and planes,
More informationCHAPTER 5. Number Theory. 1. Integers and Division. Discussion
CHAPTER 5 Number Theory 1. Integers and Division 1.1. Divisibility. Definition 1.1.1. Given two integers a and b we say a divides b if there is an integer c such that b = ac. If a divides b, we write a
More informationSolve addition and subtraction word problems, and add and subtract within 10, e.g., by using objects or drawings to represent the problem.
Solve addition and subtraction word problems, and add and subtract within 10, e.g., by using objects or drawings to represent the problem. Solve word problems that call for addition of three whole numbers
More informationMATHEMATICAL INDUCTION. Mathematical Induction. This is a powerful method to prove properties of positive integers.
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION MIGUEL A LERMA (Last updated: February 8, 003) Mathematical Induction This is a powerful method to prove properties of positive integers Principle of Mathematical Induction Let P
More informationDiscrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Fall 2009 Satish Rao, David Tse Note 2
CS 70 Discrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Fall 2009 Satish Rao, David Tse Note 2 Proofs Intuitively, the concept of proof should already be familiar We all like to assert things, and few of us
More informationSCORE SETS IN ORIENTED GRAPHS
Applicable Analysis and Discrete Mathematics, 2 (2008), 107 113. Available electronically at http://pefmath.etf.bg.ac.yu SCORE SETS IN ORIENTED GRAPHS S. Pirzada, T. A. Naikoo The score of a vertex v in
More informationMath 115 Spring 2011 Written Homework 5 Solutions
. Evaluate each series. a) 4 7 0... 55 Math 5 Spring 0 Written Homework 5 Solutions Solution: We note that the associated sequence, 4, 7, 0,..., 55 appears to be an arithmetic sequence. If the sequence
More informationNegative Integer Exponents
7.7 Negative Integer Exponents 7.7 OBJECTIVES. Define the zero exponent 2. Use the definition of a negative exponent to simplify an expression 3. Use the properties of exponents to simplify expressions
More informationAnswer Key for California State Standards: Algebra I
Algebra I: Symbolic reasoning and calculations with symbols are central in algebra. Through the study of algebra, a student develops an understanding of the symbolic language of mathematics and the sciences.
More informationk, then n = p2α 1 1 pα k
Powers of Integers An integer n is a perfect square if n = m for some integer m. Taking into account the prime factorization, if m = p α 1 1 pα k k, then n = pα 1 1 p α k k. That is, n is a perfect square
More informationSome Polynomial Theorems. John Kennedy Mathematics Department Santa Monica College 1900 Pico Blvd. Santa Monica, CA 90405 rkennedy@ix.netcom.
Some Polynomial Theorems by John Kennedy Mathematics Department Santa Monica College 1900 Pico Blvd. Santa Monica, CA 90405 rkennedy@ix.netcom.com This paper contains a collection of 31 theorems, lemmas,
More informationMatrix Algebra. Some Basic Matrix Laws. Before reading the text or the following notes glance at the following list of basic matrix algebra laws.
Matrix Algebra A. Doerr Before reading the text or the following notes glance at the following list of basic matrix algebra laws. Some Basic Matrix Laws Assume the orders of the matrices are such that
More informationDIVISIBILITY AND GREATEST COMMON DIVISORS
DIVISIBILITY AND GREATEST COMMON DIVISORS KEITH CONRAD 1 Introduction We will begin with a review of divisibility among integers, mostly to set some notation and to indicate its properties Then we will
More informationA Second Course in Mathematics Concepts for Elementary Teachers: Theory, Problems, and Solutions
A Second Course in Mathematics Concepts for Elementary Teachers: Theory, Problems, and Solutions Marcel B. Finan Arkansas Tech University c All Rights Reserved First Draft February 8, 2006 1 Contents 25
More informationGod created the integers and the rest is the work of man. (Leopold Kronecker, in an after-dinner speech at a conference, Berlin, 1886)
Chapter 2 Numbers God created the integers and the rest is the work of man. (Leopold Kronecker, in an after-dinner speech at a conference, Berlin, 1886) God created the integers and the rest is the work
More informationMBA Jump Start Program
MBA Jump Start Program Module 2: Mathematics Thomas Gilbert Mathematics Module Online Appendix: Basic Mathematical Concepts 2 1 The Number Spectrum Generally we depict numbers increasing from left to right
More informationUsing the ac Method to Factor
4.6 Using the ac Method to Factor 4.6 OBJECTIVES 1. Use the ac test to determine factorability 2. Use the results of the ac test 3. Completely factor a trinomial In Sections 4.2 and 4.3 we used the trial-and-error
More informationLocal periods and binary partial words: An algorithm
Local periods and binary partial words: An algorithm F. Blanchet-Sadri and Ajay Chriscoe Department of Mathematical Sciences University of North Carolina P.O. Box 26170 Greensboro, NC 27402 6170, USA E-mail:
More informationJust the Factors, Ma am
1 Introduction Just the Factors, Ma am The purpose of this note is to find and study a method for determining and counting all the positive integer divisors of a positive integer Let N be a given positive
More informationHandout NUMBER THEORY
Handout of NUMBER THEORY by Kus Prihantoso Krisnawan MATHEMATICS DEPARTMENT FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY 2012 Contents Contents i 1 Some Preliminary Considerations
More informationYOU CAN COUNT ON NUMBER LINES
Key Idea 2 Number and Numeration: Students use number sense and numeration to develop an understanding of multiple uses of numbers in the real world, the use of numbers to communicate mathematically, and
More informationCONTINUED FRACTIONS AND FACTORING. Niels Lauritzen
CONTINUED FRACTIONS AND FACTORING Niels Lauritzen ii NIELS LAURITZEN DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF AARHUS, DENMARK EMAIL: niels@imf.au.dk URL: http://home.imf.au.dk/niels/ Contents
More informationSimplifying Algebraic Fractions
5. Simplifying Algebraic Fractions 5. OBJECTIVES. Find the GCF for two monomials and simplify a fraction 2. Find the GCF for two polynomials and simplify a fraction Much of our work with algebraic fractions
More information8 Divisibility and prime numbers
8 Divisibility and prime numbers 8.1 Divisibility In this short section we extend the concept of a multiple from the natural numbers to the integers. We also summarize several other terms that express
More informationChapter 5. Rational Expressions
5.. Simplify Rational Expressions KYOTE Standards: CR ; CA 7 Chapter 5. Rational Expressions Definition. A rational expression is the quotient P Q of two polynomials P and Q in one or more variables, where
More informationMath Workshop October 2010 Fractions and Repeating Decimals
Math Workshop October 2010 Fractions and Repeating Decimals This evening we will investigate the patterns that arise when converting fractions to decimals. As an example of what we will be looking at,
More informationn k=1 k=0 1/k! = e. Example 6.4. The series 1/k 2 converges in R. Indeed, if s n = n then k=1 1/k, then s 2n s n = 1 n + 1 +...
6 Series We call a normed space (X, ) a Banach space provided that every Cauchy sequence (x n ) in X converges. For example, R with the norm = is an example of Banach space. Now let (x n ) be a sequence
More informationHomework until Test #2
MATH31: Number Theory Homework until Test # Philipp BRAUN Section 3.1 page 43, 1. It has been conjectured that there are infinitely many primes of the form n. Exhibit five such primes. Solution. Five such
More information3 1. Note that all cubes solve it; therefore, there are no more
Math 13 Problem set 5 Artin 11.4.7 Factor the following polynomials into irreducible factors in Q[x]: (a) x 3 3x (b) x 3 3x + (c) x 9 6x 6 + 9x 3 3 Solution: The first two polynomials are cubics, so if
More informationRadicals - Multiply and Divide Radicals
8. Radicals - Multiply and Divide Radicals Objective: Multiply and divide radicals using the product and quotient rules of radicals. Multiplying radicals is very simple if the index on all the radicals
More information11 Ideals. 11.1 Revisiting Z
11 Ideals The presentation here is somewhat different than the text. In particular, the sections do not match up. We have seen issues with the failure of unique factorization already, e.g., Z[ 5] = O Q(
More informationElementary Number Theory
Elementary Number Theory A revision by Jim Hefferon, St Michael s College, 2003-Dec of notes by W. Edwin Clark, University of South Florida, 2002-Dec L A TEX source compiled on January 5, 2004 by Jim Hefferon,
More informationCopy in your notebook: Add an example of each term with the symbols used in algebra 2 if there are any.
Algebra 2 - Chapter Prerequisites Vocabulary Copy in your notebook: Add an example of each term with the symbols used in algebra 2 if there are any. P1 p. 1 1. counting(natural) numbers - {1,2,3,4,...}
More informationA Short Guide to Significant Figures
A Short Guide to Significant Figures Quick Reference Section Here are the basic rules for significant figures - read the full text of this guide to gain a complete understanding of what these rules really
More informationChapter 7 - Roots, Radicals, and Complex Numbers
Math 233 - Spring 2009 Chapter 7 - Roots, Radicals, and Complex Numbers 7.1 Roots and Radicals 7.1.1 Notation and Terminology In the expression x the is called the radical sign. The expression under the
More informationChapter 4 -- Decimals
Chapter 4 -- Decimals $34.99 decimal notation ex. The cost of an object. ex. The balance of your bank account ex The amount owed ex. The tax on a purchase. Just like Whole Numbers Place Value - 1.23456789
More informationYear 9 set 1 Mathematics notes, to accompany the 9H book.
Part 1: Year 9 set 1 Mathematics notes, to accompany the 9H book. equations 1. (p.1), 1.6 (p. 44), 4.6 (p.196) sequences 3. (p.115) Pupils use the Elmwood Press Essential Maths book by David Raymer (9H
More information= 2 + 1 2 2 = 3 4, Now assume that P (k) is true for some fixed k 2. This means that
Instructions. Answer each of the questions on your own paper, and be sure to show your work so that partial credit can be adequately assessed. Credit will not be given for answers (even correct ones) without
More informationStudent Outcomes. Lesson Notes. Classwork. Discussion (10 minutes)
NYS COMMON CORE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM Lesson 5 8 Student Outcomes Students know the definition of a number raised to a negative exponent. Students simplify and write equivalent expressions that contain
More informationAn Efficient RNS to Binary Converter Using the Moduli Set {2n + 1, 2n, 2n 1}
An Efficient RNS to Binary Converter Using the oduli Set {n + 1, n, n 1} Kazeem Alagbe Gbolagade 1,, ember, IEEE and Sorin Dan Cotofana 1, Senior ember IEEE, 1. Computer Engineering Laboratory, Delft University
More informationMath Released Set 2015. Algebra 1 PBA Item #13 Two Real Numbers Defined M44105
Math Released Set 2015 Algebra 1 PBA Item #13 Two Real Numbers Defined M44105 Prompt Rubric Task is worth a total of 3 points. M44105 Rubric Score Description 3 Student response includes the following
More informationNumber Theory Hungarian Style. Cameron Byerley s interpretation of Csaba Szabó s lectures
Number Theory Hungarian Style Cameron Byerley s interpretation of Csaba Szabó s lectures August 20, 2005 2 0.1 introduction Number theory is a beautiful subject and even cooler when you learn about it
More informationCore Maths C1. Revision Notes
Core Maths C Revision Notes November 0 Core Maths C Algebra... Indices... Rules of indices... Surds... 4 Simplifying surds... 4 Rationalising the denominator... 4 Quadratic functions... 4 Completing the
More informationPYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES KEITH CONRAD
PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES KEITH CONRAD 1. Introduction A Pythagorean triple is a triple of positive integers (a, b, c) where a + b = c. Examples include (3, 4, 5), (5, 1, 13), and (8, 15, 17). Below is an ancient
More informationCorollary. (f є C n+1 [a,b]). Proof: This follows directly from the preceding theorem using the inequality
Corollary For equidistant knots, i.e., u i = a + i (b-a)/n, we obtain with (f є C n+1 [a,b]). Proof: This follows directly from the preceding theorem using the inequality 120202: ESM4A - Numerical Methods
More informationElementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof. CSE 215, Foundations of Computer Science Stony Brook University http://www.cs.stonybrook.
Elementary Number Theory and Methods of Proof CSE 215, Foundations of Computer Science Stony Brook University http://www.cs.stonybrook.edu/~cse215 1 Number theory Properties: 2 Properties of integers (whole
More informationStanford Math Circle: Sunday, May 9, 2010 Square-Triangular Numbers, Pell s Equation, and Continued Fractions
Stanford Math Circle: Sunday, May 9, 00 Square-Triangular Numbers, Pell s Equation, and Continued Fractions Recall that triangular numbers are numbers of the form T m = numbers that can be arranged in
More informationThis is a square root. The number under the radical is 9. (An asterisk * means multiply.)
Page of Review of Radical Expressions and Equations Skills involving radicals can be divided into the following groups: Evaluate square roots or higher order roots. Simplify radical expressions. Rationalize
More informationRadicals - Multiply and Divide Radicals
8. Radicals - Multiply and Divide Radicals Objective: Multiply and divide radicals using the product and quotient rules of radicals. Multiplying radicals is very simple if the index on all the radicals
More informationTim Kerins. Leaving Certificate Honours Maths - Algebra. Tim Kerins. the date
Leaving Certificate Honours Maths - Algebra the date Chapter 1 Algebra This is an important portion of the course. As well as generally accounting for 2 3 questions in examination it is the basis for many
More informationON FIBONACCI NUMBERS WITH FEW PRIME DIVISORS
ON FIBONACCI NUMBERS WITH FEW PRIME DIVISORS YANN BUGEAUD, FLORIAN LUCA, MAURICE MIGNOTTE, SAMIR SIKSEK Abstract If n is a positive integer, write F n for the nth Fibonacci number, and ω(n) for the number
More informationOnline EFFECTIVE AS OF JANUARY 2013
2013 A and C Session Start Dates (A-B Quarter Sequence*) 2013 B and D Session Start Dates (B-A Quarter Sequence*) Quarter 5 2012 1205A&C Begins November 5, 2012 1205A Ends December 9, 2012 Session Break
More information4.2 Euclid s Classification of Pythagorean Triples
178 4. Number Theory: Fermat s Last Theorem Exercise 4.7: A primitive Pythagorean triple is one in which any two of the three numbers are relatively prime. Show that every multiple of a Pythagorean triple
More informationCM2202: Scientific Computing and Multimedia Applications General Maths: 2. Algebra - Factorisation
CM2202: Scientific Computing and Multimedia Applications General Maths: 2. Algebra - Factorisation Prof. David Marshall School of Computer Science & Informatics Factorisation Factorisation is a way of
More informationAbout the inverse football pool problem for 9 games 1
Seventh International Workshop on Optimal Codes and Related Topics September 6-1, 013, Albena, Bulgaria pp. 15-133 About the inverse football pool problem for 9 games 1 Emil Kolev Tsonka Baicheva Institute
More informationSOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS - COMPARE THE FACTORING ac METHOD AND THE NEW DIAGONAL SUM METHOD By Nghi H. Nguyen
SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS - COMPARE THE FACTORING ac METHOD AND THE NEW DIAGONAL SUM METHOD By Nghi H. Nguyen A. GENERALITIES. When a given quadratic equation can be factored, there are 2 best methods
More information4. Binomial Expansions
4. Binomial Expansions 4.. Pascal's Triangle The expansion of (a + x) 2 is (a + x) 2 = a 2 + 2ax + x 2 Hence, (a + x) 3 = (a + x)(a + x) 2 = (a + x)(a 2 + 2ax + x 2 ) = a 3 + ( + 2)a 2 x + (2 + )ax 2 +
More informationProperties of Real Numbers
16 Chapter P Prerequisites P.2 Properties of Real Numbers What you should learn: Identify and use the basic properties of real numbers Develop and use additional properties of real numbers Why you should
More information3. Mathematical Induction
3. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 83 3. Mathematical Induction 3.1. First Principle of Mathematical Induction. Let P (n) be a predicate with domain of discourse (over) the natural numbers N = {0, 1,,...}. If (1)
More informationAMBIGUOUS CLASSES IN QUADRATIC FIELDS
MATHEMATICS OF COMPUTATION VOLUME, NUMBER 0 JULY 99, PAGES -0 AMBIGUOUS CLASSES IN QUADRATIC FIELDS R. A. MOLLIN Dedicated to the memory ofd. H. Lehmer Abstract. We provide sufficient conditions for the
More information9.3 OPERATIONS WITH RADICALS
9. Operations with Radicals (9 1) 87 9. OPERATIONS WITH RADICALS In this section Adding and Subtracting Radicals Multiplying Radicals Conjugates In this section we will use the ideas of Section 9.1 in
More informationThe Prime Numbers. Definition. A prime number is a positive integer with exactly two positive divisors.
The Prime Numbers Before starting our study of primes, we record the following important lemma. Recall that integers a, b are said to be relatively prime if gcd(a, b) = 1. Lemma (Euclid s Lemma). If gcd(a,
More informationSolutions of Equations in One Variable. Fixed-Point Iteration II
Solutions of Equations in One Variable Fixed-Point Iteration II Numerical Analysis (9th Edition) R L Burden & J D Faires Beamer Presentation Slides prepared by John Carroll Dublin City University c 2011
More information3 0 + 4 + 3 1 + 1 + 3 9 + 6 + 3 0 + 1 + 3 0 + 1 + 3 2 mod 10 = 4 + 3 + 1 + 27 + 6 + 1 + 1 + 6 mod 10 = 49 mod 10 = 9.
SOLUTIONS TO HOMEWORK 2 - MATH 170, SUMMER SESSION I (2012) (1) (Exercise 11, Page 107) Which of the following is the correct UPC for Progresso minestrone soup? Show why the other numbers are not valid
More informationLesson 9: Radicals and Conjugates
Student Outcomes Students understand that the sum of two square roots (or two cube roots) is not equal to the square root (or cube root) of their sum. Students convert expressions to simplest radical form.
More informationLies My Calculator and Computer Told Me
Lies My Calculator and Computer Told Me 2 LIES MY CALCULATOR AND COMPUTER TOLD ME Lies My Calculator and Computer Told Me See Section.4 for a discussion of graphing calculators and computers with graphing
More informationCounting Primes whose Sum of Digits is Prime
2 3 47 6 23 Journal of Integer Sequences, Vol. 5 (202), Article 2.2.2 Counting Primes whose Sum of Digits is Prime Glyn Harman Department of Mathematics Royal Holloway, University of London Egham Surrey
More informationCS 173, Spring 2015 Examlet 2, Part A
1 congruence mod k: a b (mod k) if and only if a b = nk for some integer n. Claim: For all integers a, b, c, d, j and k (j and k positive), if a b (mod k) and c d (mod k) and j k, then a + c b + d (mod
More informationV55.0106 Quantitative Reasoning: Computers, Number Theory and Cryptography
V55.0106 Quantitative Reasoning: Computers, Number Theory and Cryptography 3 Congruence Congruences are an important and useful tool for the study of divisibility. As we shall see, they are also critical
More informationCommon Core Standards for Fantasy Sports Worksheets. Page 1
Scoring Systems Concept(s) Integers adding and subtracting integers; multiplying integers Fractions adding and subtracting fractions; multiplying fractions with whole numbers Decimals adding and subtracting
More informationMATH. ALGEBRA I HONORS 9 th Grade 12003200 ALGEBRA I HONORS
* Students who scored a Level 3 or above on the Florida Assessment Test Math Florida Standards (FSA-MAFS) are strongly encouraged to make Advanced Placement and/or dual enrollment courses their first choices
More informationOn numbers which are the sum of two squares
On numbers which are the sum of two squares Leonhard Euler 1. Arithmeticians are accustomed to investigating the nature of numbers in many ways where they show their source, either by addition or by multiplication.
More informationFactoring - Greatest Common Factor
6.1 Factoring - Greatest Common Factor Objective: Find the greatest common factor of a polynomial and factor it out of the expression. The opposite of multiplying polynomials together is factoring polynomials.
More informationBasic Proof Techniques
Basic Proof Techniques David Ferry dsf43@truman.edu September 13, 010 1 Four Fundamental Proof Techniques When one wishes to prove the statement P Q there are four fundamental approaches. This document
More informationMathematics for Computer Science/Software Engineering. Notes for the course MSM1F3 Dr. R. A. Wilson
Mathematics for Computer Science/Software Engineering Notes for the course MSM1F3 Dr. R. A. Wilson October 1996 Chapter 1 Logic Lecture no. 1. We introduce the concept of a proposition, which is a statement
More information