Groundwater Governance. Synthesis of Thematic Papers/Case Studies. Preparing the ground for Regional Consultations and Global Diagnostic Report

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1 Working Draft for Regional Consultations - 30 April 2012 Groundwater Governance Synthesis of Thematic Papers/Case Studies Preparing the ground for Regional Consultations and Global Diagnostic Report

2 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 GROUNDWATERGOVERNANCE:AGlobalFrameworkforCountryAction GEFID3726 GroundwaterGovernance:SynthesisofThematicPapers/CaseStudies (preparingthegroundforregionalconsultationsandglobaldiagnosticreport) 1

3 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Contents 1. Introduction:whygroundwatergovernancematters Part1:GroundwaterGovernance statusandtrends 2. Definitionsofgroundwatergovernance Watergovernanceingeneral Distinguishingcharacteristicsofaquifersandgroundwateruse Particulargovernanceissuesforgroundwateruseandaquiferprotection Thegovernancechallenges Aworkingdefinitionofgroundwatergovernance 3. Acontextforgroundwatergovernance Hydrogeologicalrealities quantity Hydrogeologicalrealities quality Conjunctiveuseandconjunctivemanagement Reconcilingpublicandprivateinterestsinaquiferservices Takinggovernancetoscale Governanceandtime slowonsetandrapidreversals 4. Whygroundwatergovernancebeimportanttosustainessentialservicesintothefuture Sustaininggroundwateraccessandqualityforwatersecurityandpublichealth Servicinganurbanizingworld Sustainingtrendsinagriculturalintensification Maintainingecosystemfunctionsandservices Macro economicrationale 5. Whatisdrivinggroundwatergovernance? Humandemandandcompetitionforgroundwaterquantityandquality Latentappreciationofaquiferstate;depletionanddegradation Ratesofchange:rapidurbanization,technologyuptakeandland usechanges Regionalandglobalpolicyinnaturalresourceconservation 6. Evidenceofgroundwatergovernanceinpractice(asampleofCaseStudies) Aquifersasstrategicreserves ultimatesources Aquifersforeconomicdevelopment Aquifersaspartofriverbasinmanagementplans Aquifersasenvironmentalgoodsandservices andultimatesinks Institutionaladaptation theevolutionandimplementationofgroundwaterpolicies,lawsand regulations Part2:Howcouldgroundwatergovernancebeimproved? 7. Enhancedprinciplesforgovernanceofgroundwater Sustainability;incorporateaquiferresponsetimeand renewability Transparency:makegroundwaterandgroundwatermanagement visible Participation engagewithgroundwaterusersataquiferscale Accountability stresseconomicbenefitsandconsequencesofgroundwateruse 2

4 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Integrationwithwaterpolicy learntoplaywithgroundwater,andgroundwaterplayers Precautionaryprinciple Knowledgemanagementprinciple 8. InstitutionalResponses Makinggroundwaterinformationaccessible Makinganinstitutionalhomeforgroundwater Removingconstraintstogroundwatergovernance Facilitatinginvestmentingroundwatermanagement 9. Stressingthebenefitsofgovernance Livelihoodsoutcomesandgroundwatertransactions Macro economicoutcomes Environmentaloutcomes 10. Promotinginstitutionalstrategies Engagingwithusersataquiferscales Definingmutuallyacceptablelevelsofdepletionanddegradation Anticipatingtheevolutionofgroundwaterquality Spreadingproductionandenvironmentalrisks Whattodowhenaccesstogroundwaterdisappears Structuringinvestmentingroundwatergovernance Part3:Newhorizonsforgovernance dealingwithfutureuncertainties 11. Preparingfortheanticipatedimpactsofclimatechange Acceleratedhydrologicalcyclesandaquifercirculation Changingpatternsoflanduseandrecharge 12. Anticipatingtheimpactoftechnologiesandgroundwaterfrontiers Geophysicalexploration Drillingandpumpingtechnology Furtherimpactsonthebuiltenvironment Implicationsofcrustalencroachment Evolutionofenvironmentalinstrumentsandaquiferprotection 13. ConclusionsandRecommendations 3

5 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April GLOSSARYOFACRONYMS APGP AdvisoryPanelonGroundwaterPolicy(thisprojectdocument) APPR AnnualProjectProgressReport AWP AnnualWorkPlan BD BiodiversityGEFFocalArea BH BudgetHolder BRGM BureaudeRecherchesGéologiquesetMinières CGIAR ConsultativeGrouponInternationalAgriculturalResearch CPR CommonPropertyResource ECA EuropeandCentralAsia EUWFD EuropeanUnionWaterFrameworkDirective FA FrameworkforAction(thisprojectdocument) FAO Food&AgriculturalOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(seeAnnex7) GEF GlobalEnvironmentFacility GEO GlobalEnvironmentalObjective GRAPHIC GroundwaterResourcesAssessmentunderthePressuresofHumanityandClimateChange (UNESCO IHP) GWMATEGroundwaterManagementAdvisoryTeam(WorldBank) GWADI WaterandDevelopmentInformationforAridLands(UNESCO IHP) GWES GroundwaterforEmergencySituations(UNESCO IHP) GWP GlobalWaterPartnership(seeAnnex7) IAEA InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(seeAnnex7) IAH InternationalAssociationofHydrogeologists(seeAnnex7) IBNET TheInternationalBenchmarkingNetworkforWaterandSanitationUtilities IGRAC InternationalGroundwaterResourcesAssessmentCentre(seeAnnex7) IHP InternationalHydrologicalProgramme(UNESCO) INBO InternationalNetworkofBasinOrganizations INWEB InternationalNetworkofWater EnvironmentCentresfortheBalkans IOC InternationalOceanographicCommission(UNESCO) IR InceptionReport ISARM InternationalSharedAquiferResourceManagement(UNESCO IHP) IUCN InternationalUnionfortheConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(seeAnnex7) IW InternationalWater(GEFFocalArea) IWC InternationalWatersConference IW LEARN InternationalWatersLearningExchangeandResource Network IWMI InternationalWaterManagementInstitute(seeAnnex7) IWMR IntegratedWaterResourcesManagement LAC LatinAmericaandtheCaribbean LD LandDegradationGEFFocalArea MAB ManandtheBiosphereProgramme(UNESCO) MAR ManagementofAquiferRecharge(UNESCO IHP) MDGs MillenniumDevelopmentGoals MENA MiddleEastandNorthAfrica MODFLOW U.S.GeologicalSurveymodularfinite differenceflowmodel NEPAD NewPartnershipforAfrica sdevelopment NGO Non governmentalorganization OAS OrganizationofAmericanStates OECD OrganisationforEconomicCo operationanddevelopment PC ProjectCoordinator PCU ProjectCoordinatingUnit PDO ProjectDevelopmentObjective PIR ProjectImplementationReview PSC ProjectSteeringCommittee POPs PersistentOrganicProducts(GEFfocalarea) PTS PersistentToxicSubstance

6 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April SA SouthAsia SADC SouthernAfricaDevelopmentCommunity SEEAW SystemofEnvironmental EconomicAccountingforWater SIDA SwedishAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentCooperation SC SteeringCommittee(thisprojectdocument) SIDS SustainableDevelopmentofSmallIslandDevelopingStates SPPR SemiAnnualProjectProgressReport STAP ScientificandTechnicalAdvisoryPanel(GEF) TDA TransboundaryDiagnosticAnalysis ToR TermsofReference TWAP TransboundaryWaterAssessmentProgramme(GEF) UNDP UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(seeAnnex7) UNEP UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(seeAnnex7) UNESCO UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(seeAnnex7) UNESCO IHPUNESCOInternationalHydrologicalProgramme UNICEF UnitedNationsChildren sfund(seeannex7) UN ILC (UnitedNations)InternationalLawCommission WB TheWorldBank WHO WorldHealthOrganization(seeAnnex7) WHYMAP World widehydrogeologicalmappingandassessmentprogramme WMO WorldMeteorologicalOrganization(seeAnnex7) WSSD WorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment WWAP WorldWaterAssessmentProgram WWC WorldWaterCouncil(seeAnnex7) WWV WorldWaterVision

7 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April Introduction:whygroundwatergovernancematters The purpose of this global project on groundwater governance presents something of a paradox it is looking for a global solutiontoasetofessentiallylocalproblems.patternsofgroundwaterusearenecessarilydeterminedbytheaquifersthathost the groundwater and the hydrogeological process that condition groundwater flow. Governance of that use is relatively straightforward groundwaterusersandtheirpumpscanusuallybeidentifiedandappealedtoaspolicytargets.butpromoting improvedgovernanceofgroundwaterprotectioninvolvesamoreextendedsetofpolicytargets,fromdirectusersofaquifer services, to land use mangers and all those who dispose solid and liquid waste to land and surface water. Overall, the main objective is the long term functionality of aquifer systems that furnish groundwater and other related economic and environmental services. In this sense, the terms aquifer and groundwater are not equivalent and care has to be taken when referringtothegroundwaterderivedfromaquifers,andtheaquifersystemsthemselves(seebox1). Box1:Glossaryofhydrogeologicaltermsfundamentaltogroundwatergovernance Groundwater: Water present in the earth s crust in a saturated or non saturated soil, weathered mantle or consolidated rock formation. Groundwaterismovinginandoutoftheserelatively static geologicallayers sometimesmakingclearcutdistinctionsbetweensurfaceand groundwaterimpossible Aquifer:Anidentifiablegeologicalformationcapableofstoringandtransmittingwaterinuseablequantities.Thehydraulicstateoftheaquifer (whetherconfinedorunconfined)determinestheresponseoftheaquifertodevelopment.anaquifercomprisesthehostingmatrixofrock andthegroundwaterheldbetweenthematrix. AquiferDevelopment:Theprocessofpumpingorexploitinggroundwaterinanaquifer.Thiscanbethroughpumpingorthroughcontrolof artesianflowsoraquiferdischargeinseepagezones.thelevelofdevelopmentwillincuraspecificaquiferresponsewhichwilltendtoanew equilibriumlevelinthelongrunorresultinaquiferexhaustionorthelimitsoflifting. AquiferDepletion:Thereductioninaquiferstorage(inunconfinedaquifers)orpressure(inconfinedaquifers)asaresultofdevelopment. AquiferDegradation:Thechangeingroundwaterqualitybroughtaboutbyintroductionofpollutantsintoanaquiferorthereplacementof groundwaterbylowerqualitywater AquiferRecharge:Therateatwhichanaquiferacceptswaterfrommeteoricsources(directrainfallortransmissionlossesfromstreambeds) orleakagefromadjacentaquifers. AquiferDischarge:Therateatwhichanaquiferdrainstosprings,seepagezones(includingcoastalsabkahs)undernaturalconditions Abstraction: Withdrawals of groundwater from an aquifer against natural flow gradients the human development of an aquifer. The developmentofaspringcanalsobecountedasanabstractionfortheincrementalflowthatisreleased. Sustainableuse:Asocio economicinterpretationratherthanaphysicalonethatiscriteriadependant.continuedaccesstoacceptablequality groundwaterinthelongterm.thishastobedistinguishedfrom sustainableyield or safeyield First, the project needs to formulate working definition of groundwater governance. From a review of existing definitions a possiblewordingissuggestedhereasastartingpointfordiscussionintheregionalconsultations; Groundwatergovernanceistheprocessbywhichgroundwaterresourcesaremanagedthroughtheapplicationofresponsibility, participation,informationavailability,transparency,custom,andruleoflaw.itistheartofcoordinatingadministrativeactions anddecisionmakingbetweenandamongdifferentjurisdictionallevels oneofwhichmaybeglobal.(adaptedaftersaunierand Meganck.2007.DictionaryandIntroductiontoGlobalEnvironmentalGovernance) Second,theprojectispredicatedontheassumptionthatthestateofgroundwaterandgroundwatergovernanceisnot good and needs improvement. However, this presumes that we can distinguish good governance from bad or indifferent groundwater governance. While criteria for making such a distinction may be available for water governance as a whole, the formulation of specific criteria for groundwater will need advice from the project s regional consultations and consultation mechanisms. Withthisgeneralprovisiononaworkingdefinitionandcriteria, groundwatergovernance couldbeinterpretedasthesetof policies or decisions that impact groundwater use and groundwater protection. Governance can be distinguished from government (whodecides)and management (whatisdonetoimplementdecisions).inthissensegroundwatergovernanceis not fuzzy butinvolvesspecific(andnon trivial)decisionsaboutwhethertoturnonapump,applypesticidesormanagewaste 6

8 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 etc.thesearedecisionsthatcanbemadedayafterdaybywatersupplyutilitiesandhundredsofmillionsofgroundwaterusers andlandusemanagers.buttheremaybemanydecisions,publicandprivate,thatappeartofalloutsidetheimmediatedomain of groundwatergovernance butwhichstillimpactgroundwateruseandgroundwaterprotection.thesecanbeinenergyand land usepolicyasmuchastradeandagriculturesubsidies.aseriesofdraftthematicpapers(listedinannex1)ongroundwater governance issues and prospects have been compiled to form a baseline for the project and illustrate the current scope of groundwatergovernance.atpresentthesedraftswillonlybeavailableinenglish. Mankind has long interfered with the earth s crust and has build habits around geological patterns as a source of building materials, metals, minerals and groundwater. These habits persist and can become entrenched through subsidies and expectations about access to groundwater (Shah et al. 2012). The imposition of hydraulic gradients on aquifers through enhanceddrainage(developmentofspringsandfalajsystems)uptotheinstallationofhighcapacityelectro submersiblepumps imposes stresses on aquifer systems and raises questions on equitable access to groundwater and its protection as a public good.figures1and2illustratetheseimpactsongroundwaterlevels wheretheycanbeinferredfromreliablemeasurements ofgroundwaterlevels. The impacts of these stresses the aquifer response to abstraction are often invisible and unlike the monitoring of surface water systems there is no clear integrated measure of system state. Indeed the guess work is in the integration, the approximations that are made in time and space as individual geological and groundwater level observations are scaled up across an aquifer. Prior to any interference, groundwater heads determined by uplift, erosion and the shifting patterns of rechargeanddischarge.thatconfigurationwasnotstable asclimaticzonesshifted.withtheadventofenergisedpumpingin the20 th century,thisdynamicequilibriuminthemostaccessibleandmobilegroundwatercirculationwastochangeradically (Konikow,2011).Butchangesinlocalrechargeanddischargehadalreadystartedtooccuronalargescaleasland usepatterns changed urbanization, de forestation. Subsequent agricultural intensification, notably the application of inorganic fertilizers, wasalreadyimpactinggroundwaterqualitybeforethewidespreadadoptionofpumpingtechnology.(thematicpaper1).some aspects of governance relate to abstraction from very localised aquifers, but others relate to recharge processes and related land management over large areas and extensive aquifers. These present two distinct but not necessarily exclusive sets of governance. Figure1:ObserveddrawdownintheSoussbasin,Morocco Source:GWMATE.StrategicOverviewNo.4. 7

9 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Ifwecouldalldipourhandsintoareadilyaccessibleandinexhaustiblepoolorflowofunpollutedfreshwateratanytime,there wouldbenoneedforanywaterresourcemanagement orliterature.butaccesstoresourceshasalwaysbeenastruggleanda strugglethathasdefinedcivilizationsandmouldedlandscapes.eveninhumidenvironments,thesecurityofferedbyaccessto groundwaterhasmadeallthedifference anditpaystolookaftertheaquifersthatfurnishthatgroundwater.underanymode andintensityofgroundwaterdevelopment,thepointatwhichdrawdownexternalitiesbecomesignificantintermsofhuman health and livelihoods is important to recognize. Understanding how and when these externalities are felt physically and economicallyisthereforecrucialtoanydiscussionofgovernance. Figure2:Observeddrawdown inthePunjab(Pakistan) Source:GWMATE.StrategicOverviewNo.4. In the 1950s and 60s, the case for well informed large scale development of groundwater for social and economic benefits (United Nations 1960) was made. Environmental impacts were factored in, but not seen as significant to the extent that the environmental costs of development would outweigh the benefits. 50 years on the lessons have been instructive. At a global level, groundwater is estimated to service 70% of potable and industrial water supply and 40% of agricultural demand. Data compiledforthisprogrammeindicatetherapidgrowthofgroundwateruse,particularlybyagriculture(box2). Box2:Mappingthestateofglobalgroundwaterresourceanduse Groundwater resources have been mapped at global and regional scale (e.g. WHYMAP Africa;SADChydrogeologicalmapping)togetherwithawiderange of national hydrogeological mapping initiatives ranging from 1: 1M to 1: 100: 000 scale. Individual development projects have mapped groundwaterresourcesandpiezometricdataatmuchhigherresolutions,sometimesincludingdetailedgiscompilationshavebeenmadeat countrylevel(themali,) This legacy of aquifer mapping, borehole inventories, drilling records is sometimes buried in the grey literature, but there are genuine attemptstoputthesereportsinthepublicdomain( canbetakenwithglobalanalysisofavailablestatisticaldatafordominantagriculturaluse(siebertetal.2010http:// earth systsci.net/14/1863/2010/hess html) which compiles the results of available detailed national reports such as the 4th Minor IrrigationCensusforIndia.Urban/Industrialuseasafractionoftotalusemayberelativelysmall(andwillhavedeclinedinsomepost industrial aquifers(thechalkbelowlondon),butremaineconomicallyimportant.however,comprehensiveestimatesofalldrinkingwatersupplysuch asthatcarriedoutfortheunicefandwhojointmonitoringprogramme( estimates/table/)stillgiveestimates thatpointtolocallyimportantsourcesofsupplyforurbanareasandstrongdependenceinruralareasofdevelopingcountries(unicef/who JointMonitoringReportDecember2011) Thestateoftheearth sgroundwaterresourcesandtheheathoftheaquifersthatsupplyhumanusesofgroundwaterareclosely linked to the state of groundwater governance the local arrangements that directly impact groundwater use and aquifer pollution.butthestateoftheshallowgroundwatercirculationintheearth scrust,uponwhichwehavenowcometodepend,is 8

10 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 not good byanymeasure.thesustaineduseofgroundwatermaysimplynotbearealisticprospectformanyofourintensively exploitedaquifers.elsewhere,sincethestateofsurfacewaterbodiesdegradationmaybeevenmoresevere,theinteraction betweensurfacewaterandgroundwaterwillbetransmitted.thisbegsafundamentalquestionofhowwegovernouruseand abuseofgroundwater,theaquifersthathostitandthesurfacewatersystemsthattransmitessentialrecharge. This reliance on groundwater is growing as alternative sources of surface water come under pressure. Indeed reliance upon groundwatercanbetakenasthefirstsignofwaterscarcity(shah,2006).butagainstthistrendofgrowingdependency,the depletionofnon renewablegroundwaterresourcesandtheirreversibledegradationofaquifershaveproduced,insomecases, dislocationofpeopleandlivelihoodsinsomecases.theinevitableaccumulationofdemandforfreshwaterandtheproduction ofwasteismodifyingthecirculationandqualityofgroundwaterintheearth scrusttosuchadegreethatoncereliableaccessto highqualitygroundwaterisnolongertakenasagiven.ultimatesource,ultimatesink butwearenowinastatewherescience canpredictgroundwatersystemresponses modellingandthemanagementoflargedatasetshasadvancedconsiderably. In broad definitions of natural resource governance, the principles of inclusive participation/representation, accountability, informationflows,transparencyandtherespectforformallawandcustomaryregulationcountinthecaseofgroundwateras muchasanyothernaturalresource.butintwocrucialrespectsitisperhapsdifferent,largelyunseenandsystemsrespondover time.thevisibilityoftheannualhydrologicalcycleisnotthereandtheoccurrenceandstateoftheresourceisneverclearto users particularlyhowindividualactionscanimpactapublicresource. Asscarcityofhighqualitysourcesofwaterintensifiesandtreatment/alternativesupplycosts(energyprincipally)increase,water suppliersarehavingtolookathewaterriskingeneral.manyusersofgroundwatermayrealisethatwhiletheconvenienceof groundwater mobilisation offers many advantages, the issue of ultimate source and ultimate sink soon comes back to haunt themasrelianceturnstodependency.infossilaquifersde coupledfromcontemporaryrecharge,thecaseforabstractioncanbe madeonthebasisofdischargethatwillhappenanyway thenon beneficialseepagetosabhkasorsubmarinesprings.butas soonasarechargecomponentisrecognisedinaquiferresponsetorainfalleventsordevelopment,thenotionof sustainability becomesmuchmoredifficulttotrack.inaddition,acrossarapidlychangingworld,thepointatwhichgroundwaterabstractions can flip from predominantly agricultural use to urban use is important to recognize this transition will unleash a new set of governanceandmanagementchallenges. The hydrogeological setting frames the sustainability problem and constrains the solutions. Marrying these settings to socioeconomicpatternsisessentialtoframeworkworkablesolutions.ifpatternsofabstraction,landuseandpopulationcontinueas projected,itmaybeimpossibletorelaxsomepressures,butitmaybepossibletobealittlemoreimaginativewithtechnical approaches(re cycling and re use) and waste minimization. For this, sustainable use of groundwater and aquifer services is perhaps a more realistic target than a broad notion of sustainability which assumes that aquifer state remains unchanged. Depletion and degradation will continue to occur so that the it may make sense to think in terms of admissible or mutually acceptablecriteriaorindicators. Thespectrumofgroundwaterchallengesfromintensiveuseforagriculturetoleachatefromland fillsitesarecommontomost countries. As the utility of the earth s crust and groundwater circulation becomes apparent, new geological frontiers have openedupfromhydrothermalproduction,hydro fracturing(fracking)togasstoragetocarbonsequestration.theserelatively newusesoftheundergroundspacehavedirectimplicationsforadjacentaquifersandthedegreetowhichfurtherprotectionof aquiferswillbeextendedisbeingtestedthroughenvironmentalimpactsassessmentsandpublicenquiriesorjudicialreviews. The profession of groundwater developers and managers the hydrogeologists tend scare planners and economists with storiesofend games.whatwillhappenifthereisnoaction casestudiesandscenariosfordepletedanddegradedaquifers. Theyscarebecausetheycare.Butevidenceofprescientactiontoavertgroundwatercrisesishardtofind.Irrespectiveofthe legalstatusofgroundwater(generallyclassifiedaspublicwater),theresourcecontinuestobeperceivedas private.thereis stillagaptobebridgedbetweenthescienceandnaturalresourcepolicymakinginbuildingthecaseforimprovedgroundwater governance. Aretheresolutions?Pastsattemptstoregulateandmanagegroundwaterasjustanothernaturalresourcehaveinformedus whatnottodo andsomeindicationofwheretostart.someenvironmentalreportingrequirementsarenowpromptingmore inclusive assessments of groundwater status and risks to economic, social and environmental services derived from groundwater.butatthesametimeopportunitiesforconjunctiveuseandconjunctivemanagementarebeingmissed asthe necessary understanding of surface water groundwater interactions has lagged and the structural role of groundwater in integrated water resource management has been ignored. In this sense, the explicit recognition of groundwater in water governancedebatesishardtofind.theemphasisremainscentredonthesurfacewaterdominated hydraulic administrations whereinvestmentsaremoresupplydriven, lumpy andhencemorevisible(oecd,2011) 9

11 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 To whom can a message for improved groundwater governance be addressed? This initiative is predicated on changing individual groundwater user and polluter behaviours in order to conserve the integrity of aquifers and sustain a set of socioeconomicandenvironmentalservices.however,theappealtomodifyspecificbehaviourswillbemediatedbyinstitutionsthat canrangefrommulti nationalcorporateintereststhroughpublicagenciesandcommunitygroups.itisthereforeimportantto understandthatalthoughthepotentialtargetstopropagatesuchamessagearewide,maintainingequitable,longtermaccess togroundwaterofacceptablequalitywillnecessarilyinvolvehighlylocalised,tailoredsolutions.inthissensefindingpolitically viable institutional arrangements will be more critical that simply fixing the broader institutional environment (through legislation or resource pricing) or relying on supply driven technological fixes. The relative perspectives of users, natural resource managers, regulators and legislators are all relevant, but the point of groundwater use and the act of pollution are behavioural responses that have shown themselves resistant to change even when the consequences of our groundwater habits are terminal. 10

12 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Part1:GroundwaterGovernance statusandtrends 2. Definitionsofgroundwatergovernance Whatmakesgroundwaterparticularanditsgovernanceproblematic?Generaldefinitionsofwatergovernanceareheldtoapply togroundwaterinmostlegal/jurisdictionaldomains(thematicpaper5and6)buttheoccurrenceofgroundwaterinaquifersis distinguishedbygeological granularity andmuchfuzzierboundaryconditions.forinstance,conventionalriparianlawrelated to clearly identified channels through which water flows cannot apply. In addition, groundwater may be distinguished from other mineral resources hosted in geological formations (including oil and gas) on the basis of its ubiquity, renewability and essentialservicetolife.addedtothisisthecomplicationofthirdpartyeffects.notalllandmanagersabstractgroundwaterfrom a specific aquifer for economic gain, but all land management will have an impact on aquifer recharge. This makes the application of community based management models or classical common property theory problematic for groundwater in particular(vandeschans,2003). Since the large scale and intensive use of groundwater has only occurred with the advent of the energised pump (Thematic Paper8)itisperhapsunderstandablethatwatergovernancehasnotbeenabletocatchupandthatthelonglegacyoflargely riparianbasedwaterlawhasbeenhardtoadapt(thematicpaper6).indeed,whilesystemsofwaterallocationhavehistorically concentratedonwhogetswhatandhowmuchoftherenewablehydrologicalcyclethatisapparentinriverandstreamflow,the formalinclusionofwidespreadcustomaryuseofgroundwaterhastendedtolagbehind. Watergovernanceingeneral In broad terms, effective water governance mechanisms should be accountable, transparent and participatory and should functioninanintegratedmanner(faowatertenureguidelines,inpress seebox3).thematicpaper5providesanaccountof principlesthathavebeenappliedinwatergovernancemodels socio cultural,political,institutional,economicandecological. InadditionrecentsurveyfromOECDcountries(OECD,2011)hasstressedthemulti levelgovernance gaps thatcompromise effective co ordination and implementation of national water policies. However, such is the localised nature of groundwater access and use, it may help to distinguish between the general institutional environment in which policy, legal and administrationnormsaresetatnationallevel,andthemuchmoredetailedsetofrulesthatgovernwateruseandtransactions (Shah2005). Box3.GeneralWaterGovernancePrinciples Effectivenaturalresourceallocationandmanagementdecisionsrequireaccountability.Decisionmakersneedtobeheldtoaccountforthe decisionsthattheymakesuchthatmistakesandpoordecisionscanberemediedandrectified.thisisparticularlyimportantasregardswater tenure which may be adversely affected by bad governance in terms of loss of livelihoods, investment and so on. Decisions made by technocratsinsecretbehindcloseddoorswithnocomebackorchanceofcome backarenotlikelytobegooddecisions. Transparencyisakeyprincipleforensuingbetterdecision makingandaccountability.ofcoursetransparencyisimportantinallwalksoflife butitisparticularlyimportantinthewaterresourcessectorwherelegislationislessaboutsettingoutlegalrulesandmoreaboutsettingouta process for resource management, one that invariably impacts on water governance arrangements. Transparency implies: public access to informationaboutwaterresourcesandwatertenurearrangementsincludingpublicaccesstowaterrightsregisters;decisionmakingonthe basis of publicly recognised and agreed criteria such as river basin management plans; an obligation to provide reasons when adverse decisionsaremade;cheapandrapidappealprocedures;andseparating,asfaraspossible,politicsfromthedecisionmakingprocess. Participation is necessary to ensure that better decisions are made. This is particularly important as regards water governance as such decisionsmayaffectarangeofdifferenttypesofgovernancearrangementaswellasdifferenttypesofuse.ifdecisionsarenotmadeonthe basisofparticipationand buyin,notonlyaretheylikelytobesubstantivelyworsebuttheyarealsolikelytobelesseasytoimplement. Integrated water resources management(iwrm) has become the dominant paradigm for water resources management. One of the most citedisthatitis aprocesswhichpromotesthecoordinateddevelopmentandmanagementofwaterlandandrelatedresourcesinorderto maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GlobalWaterPartnership).However,intermsofgovernance,thekeyintegrationrequirementisthatasfaraspossibleallaspectsofwater tenure should be subject to a single basic water resources regime in terms of both legislation and institutional arrangements for the implementationofsuchlegislation.putanotherway,waterisasingleresourcesandshouldbemanagedassuch.inpracticethismeansisthat alltypesofwateruseandthuswatergovernancearrangementsshouldbesubjectasfaraspracticabletothesamebasiclegislativeframework, withcertainexceptionsexploredfurtherbelow,irrespectiveofthetypeofactivity.akeyfeatureisthatallwateruseswithinagivenbasin and/oraquiferdirectlyorindirectlyimpactuponeachother. 11

13 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Distinguishingcharacteristicsofaquifersandgroundwateruse Groundwaterandtheaquifersthathostitcanbedistinguishedfromsurfacewaterresourcesinseveralkeycharacteristics: unseenorunacknowledgedevenwhenexposed(groundwaterinopen castpits)buthighlydistributed(ubiquitous); aquiferresponsestodevelopmentgenerallyoccuroverlongperiodsoftime butcanrapidlychangewhensystems movefromaconfinedtounconfinedstate; theresponsesandaccessibilityofshallowgroundwatercirculationneedtobedifferentiatedfromdeepcirculation; aquiferdegradationmoredifficulttoaddressthanaquiferdepletion varyingimpactsofcontaminantloadsdepending onaquifervulnerability; somedepletionsandaquifercontamination/degradation(includingsalineintrusion)maybeirreversible. levelsnotvolumescountformostpracticalpurposes; recharge:intensiveabstractioninfluencesrechargeratesandreplenishmentofaquiferscanbemisinterpreted nonaturalintegratedmeasureandmonitoringandassessmentcostsarehigh; rechargehardtogetahandleonbutglobaloverviewsbecomingpossible; aquifersaretheultimatesource andtheultimatesink;and modesandintensityofexploitationarehighlyvaried andinstitutionalresponsesequallyso. Particulargovernanceissuesforgroundwateruseandaquiferprotection Thisleadstoasetofspecificgovernanceissuesthatwhiletheyrelatetowatergovernanceasawhole,areparticularto groundwater.thesecanbebroadlystatedas: theeffectiveownershipofgroundwaterstillperceivedasintenselyprivateinmanypartsoftheworld,afactwhich interfereswithmodernnotionsofthestateorlocalgovernmentastheguardianortrusteeofwhathasbecomea resourceofstrategicimportance; theallocationofgroundwaterforeconomicusesanditsconservationtosupportgroundwaterdependent ecosystemsandthebaseflowofwatercourses; protectingnaturalgroundwaterrechargeprocessesfromland basedinterferences; protectinggroundwaterqualityfromland based, diffuse sourcesofpollution(e.g.,therunoffofcroplands,butalso stormwaterrunoffinurbanareas),andfromthediffusepollutionoriginatingfrompointsourceslikewastedumps, landfills,andtheundergroundstoragesofsubstances; theinterfacebetweenformalgroundwaterabstractionrightsandcustomaryrightsandpractices, theroleofgroundwaterusersandofrelevantgroupingsinmanagingaquifersunderstress;and theroleofriverbasinagenciesandorganizationsinintegratingthegroundwatervariableinwaterresource. management. Thegovernancechallenges Thesecharacteristicsofgroundwaterandaquiferspresentaspecialsetofgovernancechallenges,notleasttheapplicabilityof general economic instruments to guide resource conservation and use. To some degree, the common pool resource analysis (Ostrom,2001)providesmethodforrecognizingatypologyofchallenges,butwhenconsideredalongsideothercommonpoolor public resources,theprinciplesthatarederivedmaynotbesufficient(thematicpaper5).aquifersdonotnecessarilyfallinto neat typologies of common pool resources. There a wide diversity in terms of scale and three dimensional character and response fromtheshortcirculationinthindiscontinuousalluvialaquiferstothelongperiodsofdeep,structurallycontrolled circulation. Adaptive management of such systems, including conjunctive management with surface water resources and protectionofrechargeareaswillnotnecessarilyinvolveneat,wellboundedgovernancearrangements. Thedefiningfeatureinmanywaysisthemodeofaccess,which(apartfrompublicallyconstructedandmaintainedboreholes) tendstobeprivate(thematicpaper8),andthesusceptibilityofgroundwatercirculationtoalltypesoflanduseaspartofthe naturalrechargecycle(thematicpaper4).whilenoteverybodyreliesongroundwatersource,allhumanspossesstheabilityto polluteanddegradegroundwater.whilethisconfersaspecialsetofresponsibilitiesonthosewhoabstractgroundwater,the consumptivebehavioursofallcanbeexpectedtohavesomeeventualimpactonthequalityofwatercontainedinaquifers. Generic definitions of governance and water governance provided above give some help, but the distinction between Institutional Environment and Institutional Arrangements is fundamental and important in terms of groundwater. An examinationofgroundwatergovernanceneedsafocusoninstitutionalarrangementswithrespecttobothpointsofabstraction (conditionedbylandtenure/access)andtheconservationandprotectionofaquifersthroughlandmanagement(spatialplanning andmanagement).howeverdefinitionsofgroundwatergovernanceassumeaninclusivedefinitionofinstitutionsinrelationto environmentandtechnology.thecommonpropertyresource(cpr)literatureisinstructiveinsomerespects(box4). 12

14 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Box4:CommonPropertyResources Inasummarypaperpreparedfor(Ostrom,2001)Notesthat considerableconsensusexiststhatthefollowingattributesofresourcesandof appropriatorsareconducivetoanincreasedlikelihoodthatself governingassociationswillform Ostrom( )identifiesfourresource attributesand6appropriatorattributes: AttributesoftheResource: R1.Feasibleimprovement:Resourceconditionsarenotatapointofdeteriorationsuchthatitisuselesstoorganizeorsounderutilizedthat littleadvantageresultsfromorganizing. R2.Indicators:Reliableandvalidindicatorsoftheconditionoftheresourcesystemarefrequentlyavailableatarelativelylowcost. R3.Predictability:Theflowofresourceunitsisrelativelypredictable. R4.Spatialextent:Theresourcesystemissufficientlysmall,giventhetransportationandcommunicationtechnologyinuse,thatappropriators candevelopaccurateknowledgeofexternalboundariesandinternalmicroenvironments. AttributesoftheAppropriators: A1.Salience:Appropriatorsaredependentontheresourcesystemforamajorportionoftheirlivelihood. A2.Commonunderstanding:Appropriatorshaveasharedimageofhowtheresourcesystemoperates(attributesRI,2,3,and4above)and howtheiractionsaffecteachotherandtheresourcesystem. A3.LowDiscountrate:Appropriatorsuseasufficientlylowdiscountrateinrelationtofuturebenefitstobeachievedfromtheresource. A4.TrustandReciprocity:Appropriatorstrustoneanothertokeeppromisesandrelatetooneanotherwithreciprocity. A5.Autonomy:Appropriatorsareabletodetermineaccessandharvestingruleswithoutexternalauthoritiescountermandingthem. A6.Priororganizationalexperienceandlocalleadership:Appropriatorshavelearnedatleastminimalskillsoforganizationandleadership throughparticipationinotherlocalassociationsorlearningaboutwaysthatneighboringgroupshaveorganized. Ostrom then goes on to set out a set of 8 design principles that can be assumed to apply to long enduring common pool resource institutions DesignPrinciples 1.ClearlyDefinedBoundaries:Individualsorhouseholdswithrightstowithdrawresourceunitsfromthecommonpoolresourceandthe boundariesofthecommon poolresourceitselfareclearlydefined 2.Congruence: a.thedistributionofbenefitsfromappropriationrulesisroughlyproportionatetothecostsimposedbyprovisionrules. b.appropriationrulesrestrictingtime,place,technology,and/orquantityofresourceunitsarerelatedtolocalconditions. 3.Collective ChoiceArrangements:Mostindividualsaffectedbyoperationalrulescanparticipateinmodifyingoperationalrules. 4.Monitoring:Monitors,whoactivelyauditcommon poolresourceconditionsandappropriatorbehaviour,areaccountabletothe appropriatorsand/oraretheappropriatorsthemselves. 5.GraduatedSanctions:Appropriatorswhoviolateoperationalrulesarelikelytoreceivegraduatedsanctions(dependingontheseriousness andcontextoftheoffense)fromotherappropriators,fromofficialsaccountabletotheseappropriators,orfromboth. 6.Conflict ResolutionMechanisms:Appropriatorsandtheirofficialshaverapidaccesstolow cost,localarenastoresolveconflictamong appropriatorsorbetweenappropriatorsandofficials. 7.MinimalRecognitionofRightstoOrganize:Therightsofappropriatorstodevisetheirowninstitutionsarenotchallengedbyexternal governmentalauthorities. Forcommon poolresourcesthatarepartoflargersystems 8.NestedEnterprises:Appropriation,povision,monitoring,enforcement,conflictresolution.andgovernanceactivitiesareorganizedin multiplelayersofnestedenterprises. InrelationtotheresourceandappropriatorattributesOstrom(op.cit)goesontonote; Itisveryimportanttostressthatmanyofthesevariablesareinturnaffectedbythetypeoflargerregimeinwhichusersare embedded.largerregimescanfacilitatelocalself organizationbyprovidingaccurateinformationaboutnaturalresource systems,providingarenasinwhichparticipantscanengageindiscoveryandconflict resolutionprocesses,andproviding mechanismstobackuplocalmonitoringandsanctioningefforts.theprobabilityofparticipantsadaptingmoreeffectiverulesin macro regimesthatfacilitatetheireffortsovertimeishigherthaninregimesthatignoreresourceproblemsentirelyor,atthe otherextreme,presumethatalldecisionsaboutgovernanceandmanagementneedtobemadebycentralauthorities. 13

15 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 The point about the institutional environment conditioning the eventual institutional arrangements is well understood, but perhaps because of groundwater s invisibility and perceived technical mystique, groundwater governance falls victim to an expectation that all decisions about governance and management need to be made by central authorities. It is therefore interesting to note that in relation to specific groundwater institutions that have evolved in southern California, Blomquist (1992)stresses criteriaforevaluatingtheperformanceofgroundwaterinstitutionswhichareappliedtoevaluateinstitutional responsestogroundwatermanagementinsoutherncaliforniaare(innoparticularorderofpriority); 1. Compliance 2. Effectiveness 3. Efficiencyinadministration(basinmanagementcosts) 4. Efficiencyinresourceuse 5. Equity fiscalequivalence 6. Equity distributionalconsiderations 7. Adaptability This detailed evaluation illustrated the evolution and diversity of institutional responses across a set of aquifers in rich institutionalenvironmentwithrecoursetolegaladjudication.ifthisrangeofresponsesispossibleinaverysmall,butdensely populated, area, how uniform or generic can we expect institutional responses elsewhere with possibly more varied hydrogeologicalconditions?asblomquist(1992)arguesinthecaseofcalifornia,thereshouldbestrongincentivestomanage groundwaterresourceslocallygiventheexpenseofimportingwaterfromothersources. Aworkingdefinitionofgroundwatergovernance AsindicatedintheIntroduction,theprojectneedstoformulateworkingdefinitionof groundwatergovernance.fromareview ofexistingdefinitionsapossiblewordingissuggestedbelow.thisdefinitioncanserveasastartingpointfordiscussioninthe RegionalConsultations. Groundwater governance is the process by which groundwater is managed through the application of responsibility, participation,informationavailability,transparency,custom,andruleoflaw.itistheartofcoordinatingadministrativeactions and decision making between and among different jurisdictional levels one of which may be global. (AdaptedafterSaunierandMeganck.2007.DictionaryandIntroductiontoGlobalEnvironmentalGovernance). Accordingly, groundwatergovernance couldbeinterpretedasthesetofpoliciesordecisionsthatmoderatesgroundwateruse andpromotesaquiferprotection.governancecanbedistinguishedfrom government (whodecides)and management (what isdonetoimplementdecisions).inthissensegroundwatergovernanceisnot fuzzy buthastoframespecific(andnon trivial) decisionsaboutwhethertoturnonapump,applypesticidesormanagewasteetc.thesearedecisionsthatcanbemadeday afterdaybyhundredsofmillionsofgroundwaterusersandlandusemanagers.buttheremaybemanydecisions,publicand private, that fall outside groundwater governance but which still impact groundwater use and groundwater protection. The distinction between management and governance is important. Broadly, groundwater management is the set actions to implementdecisionsthatderivefromtheprocessofgovernance. Assuming that a definition can be agreed, the project is predicated on the assumption that the state of groundwater and groundwatergovernanceisnotnecessarily good andneedsimprovement i.e.thatthereisagovernancegap.however,this presumes that we can distinguish good governance from bad or indifferent groundwater governance. While criteria for makingsuchadistinctionmaybeavailableforwatergovernanceasawhole,theformulationofspecificcriteriaforgroundwater willneedadvicefromtheproject sregionalconsultations. 14

16 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April Acontextforgroundwatergovernance ThematicPaper5describesasetofinstitutionalconstraintsandbarrierstotheimplementationofeffectivegovernance.These have to be taken together with the physical hydrogeological realities set out in Thematic Papers 1 4. Starting from these hydrogeological realities,theissuesofpublicversusprivateinterests,scalingandtimearebrieflydescribed. Hydrogeologicalrealities quantity Assessing the level of groundwater demand and state of aquifer depletion needs to be approached with care (Konkikow & Kendy, 2005; Konikow, 2011). The hydrogeological community have been at pains to educate public and policy makers in technicallycorrectdefinitionsandavoidcasualuseofsuchtermsas over exploitation (Margat,1992)orpresumptionsabout using recharge as a criterion for development limits (Sophocleous, 1997,Custodio, 2002). The reason for this is that such misconceptions have fuelled attempts at governance which may prove misguided or counterproductive (Ward, 2008). Therefore hydrogeologists have advocated abandoning the notion of sustainable yield as a criterion for groundwater development(broedehoft,2007).understandingrechargeinrelationtointensivepumpingandthe capture offlowinaquifer systems is now a critical issue in groundwater resource planning(thematic Paper 4). But in sub humid climates(for instance Europe)groundwatermanagementhascomeinandoutoffocusdependinguponthepointatwhichpolicyismade indrought years or years of flood. This political reality notwithstanding, Figure 3 presents a generalised account of how aquifer developmentcanprogressandtheimpactsongroundwaterlevels. Figure3:Thestagesofgroundwaterresourcedevelopmentandtheirimpactonthenaturaldischargeofgroundwaterbodies Source:GWMATEBriefingNote11 This pattern of development over time will be familiar to many groundwater managers and in trying to cope with observed depletion of aquifer storage (when unconfined) or aquifer flow (when confined). The technical response once groundwater resourceandriskassessmentshavebeenmadecanbeclassifiedasillustratedinfigure4 assumingthattechnicalmanagement ispossibleandpoliticallyacceptable.thematicpapers2,3and4havefocusedonthetechnicalscopeforaquifermanagement. 15

17 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Figure4:Targetsforgroundwaterresourcemanagementin rationalizationscenarios followingindiscriminateandexcessive exploitation Source:GWMATEBriefingNote11 Butthedepletionconcernisjustonefacetofsustainableuse.Maintaininggroundwaterqualitywhilealsoseekingtostabilise groundwaterlevelscompoundsthegovernancechallenge,implicatingnotjustgroundwaterabstractorsbutthewholearrayof actorsinvolvedinland useandpollutionmanagement(thematicpaper1). Actual institutional responses have tended to opt for technocratic regulation some of which is necessary in the case of protecting aquifers for crucial water supply purposes. Other attempts to regulate demand have required clear incentives or direct and indirect resource and energy pricing policies.in addition, precisely where sustainable use of groundwater should matter(e.g.spain,mexico,india,china)thescaleofagriculturalabstractionhasprovedimpossibletoregulate(e.g.westeret al.2011).threebasicquestionsarise Hastheunderstandingofpressuresontheresourcebaseanditsinherentvulnerabilitybeenappreciated? Havenationalplanningprovisions/lawsbeenadequate? Haslocalisationofresourcemanagementbeeneffective?Thescaleofgroundwaterissuesmaybequitesmallandlocal solutionstheobviousstartingpointanyway). Hydrogeologicalrealties quality Thelong termaccumulationofnaturalandman madepollutantsinaquifersystemsandthetwo wayimprintingofgroundwater andaquifermatrixmaypresentamoreintractablegovernanceproblemthengroundwaterquantityorlevels(thematicpaper1). The role of drilling and pumping in mobilising naturally occurring pollutants such as arsenic or fluoride or inducing saline intrusion can be contrasted with the broader non point impact of land use management on groundwater quality. Improved governance of drilling and pumping involves engagement of clear cut governance target even if they can be counted in hundredsofmillions.engagementofgroundwaterpollutersontheotherhandpresentsamoreuniversalgovernanceissueand is as much an issue for urban water supply utility managers (Thematic Paper 3) as agricultural and environmental agencies seekingtoregulatetheapplicationfertilizersandpesticides. A much more sophisticated evaluation of the role of groundwater in furnishing sets of ecosystem functions has now become available(morriset.al.1993).manyoftheenvironmentalservicesmaintainedbygroundwaterlevelsarelinkedtoamenityvalue andfreshwaterbiodiversity(preferenceforwetlandsasopposedtodrainedagriculturalland,forexample)butotherssuchas continuedfunctioningofoasesinaridareashavedirectimpactsonlivelihoods.decidinghowtheseecosystemvaluesaretobe maintained (either by active management of groundwater pumping regimes to augment surface flows or by relaxation of aquifer development to maintain groundwater levels) is not trivial particularly in densely populated areas where demand for ecosystemservicesislikelytobehighest. 16

18 WorkingDraftforRegionalConsultations 30April2012 Conjunctiveuseandconjunctivemanagement Itisarguedthatthefullpotentialofconjunctivemanagementofsurfaceandgroundwaterhasnotbeenrealised,inspiteofthe callstocommitintegratedwaterresourcemanagement.althoughitispossibletoobservealotofconjunctiveuse(groundwater scavenginginsurfaceirrigationschemes),proactiveconjunctivemanagementtoresolvescarcityandqualityconstraintshasonly seen partial application. In fact, the use of aquifers for managed storage of surplus surface water has broad application from smallscalewatersupplyandirrigationschemestomunicipalsupplywheresomeformofaquifer storage recoveryispossible. But beyond this, the regulation of recharge through land management also offers scope to improve groundwater quality and quantity. However, as observed above, the incentives to manage for quantity (in terms of reduced drawdown) will be more directtogroundwaterusers.persuadingindividualstoreducechemicalinputsonlandorchangelandmanagementandwaste disposalpracticesismoredifficultsincetheremaybenodirectbenefitthem(asopposedtootherdirectusersoftheimpacted aquifer). The governance challenge for full adoption of conjunctive management( where it can make a difference) therefore extends across the technical management of water storage along a river basin and into the broader domain of recharge regulationthroughlandmanagement. Reconcilingpublicandprivateinterestsinaquiferservices Untangling the web of customary use of groundwater and more formal water allocation procedures still proves problematic. Free access to groundwater for de minimus use is taken as a given in most current water law (Thematic Paper 6). Some jurisdictions still give unfettered rights in use to land holders. If this private use did not impinge upon public interests in groundwater access and groundwater quality there would be no immediate governance problem. But it does and in many complexanddifficulttopredictways.wellinterference,irreversiblepollutionofaquifermatrixalldemandalevelofresponsible behaviour on the part of users of groundwater and the land through which it is recharged. The separation of land and water rightshasgenerallyoccurredtoavoid grabbing ofpublicresources(nottoinducetradingassomehaveinterpreted). Takinggroundwatergovernancetoscale Scaling presents the major institutional challenge, particularly when taken with the scale of water administration generally (ThematicPaper5).Manycasestudiespointtothepotentialforinnovativebutlocalsolutionstoimproveorprolongthestateof alocalresource(thematicpaper7).indiastandsoutintermsofthescaleandintensityofdevelopment abutalsointheusa wherethearidwest/swhasreliedondevelopmentofdeeperaquifers.identifyingtherangeofhydrogeologicalproblemsthat needtobeaddressedneedscarefulanalysisandpresentationattheoutsetiftheresorttogovernanceistohaveanylegitimacy. Resourceassessmentsandhydrogeologicalmappingatascalethatcanbeusedbyplannerscanprovevitalinthisregard.Butit issignificantthatevenintheunitedkingdomhydrogeologicalmappingavailableatscalesusefultoplanners(1:100,000)was only available in the 1980s and only then in the strategic southern Chalk and Limestone aquifers. The scale at which such groundwaterproblemsaspost industrialgroundwaterriseandassociatedpollution.nitrateandpesticideapplicationoruseof geothermalenergyneedtobeanalysedandplannedformaynotbecompatible. Governanceandtime slowonsetandrapidreversals Finally, anticipating governance requirements over time presents levels of risk and uncertainty not normally associated with conventionalwaterresourcemanagement.theoperationofasurfacewaterreservoir,forexample,isnotbesetbyunforeseen evolutionofwaterqualityorincrementalrisesinpumping(slowonsetproblems)orrapidreversalsoncethehydraulicstateof anaquifersystemisalteredorpolluted(rapidreversals).thepoliticalresponsestogroundwater problems maysimplybetoo short termtoalloweffectivegovernancemodelstobeapplied(thematicpaper5). 17

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