Covalent bonds and Lewis dots. Completing octets by sharing electrons
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1 Covalent bonds and Lewis dots Completing octets by sharing electrons
2 Learning objectives Describe covalent bond Describe basis of octet rule Predict using electronegativity values the polarity of bonds Write Lewis dot structures for simple molecules Identify cases where octet is expanded
3 Driving force for bonds Chemical bonds make atoms more stable than they are if non-bonded Bond formation involves changes in the electrons on two atoms. Either: Electron transfer Electron sharing
4 Noble gases provide clues
5 The Octet Rule All elements strive to become a noble gas, at least as far as the electrons are concerned. Filling the outer shell 8 electrons Achieve this by adding electrons Or taking them away
6 Lewis dot model The nucleus and all of the core electrons are represented by the element symbol The valence electrons are represented by dots one for each electron Number of dots in Lewis model is equal to group number (in 1 8 system)
7 Remember this simple rule!! Number of dots in Lewis model is equal to group number (in 1 8 numbering system)
8 Sharing two electrons effectively doubles the count Each atom wants 8 Alone each has seven Together they have eight Single covalent bond
9 Covalent bonds between unlike elements Oxygen requires octet shares two with H atoms Hydrogen requires two each shares one with O
10 Larger molecules
11 Lewis dot structures In going from G4 G7, a H atom is replaced by a lone pair of electrons H F O H H The total number of electrons is equal to the sum of all the valence electrons The total number of electrons remains the same 8 H N H H H H C H H Each atom has a complete octet
12 Multiple bonds are a feature O 2 and N 2 do not achieve octets by sharing two electrons Must share more electrons O 2 has double bond (four electrons shared) N 2 has triple bond (six electrons shared) one of the strongest in chemistry N 2 is very stable and unreactive also the major product from explosives
13 Bond order increases as electron total decreases Molecule Group number Total number of electrons Bond order F-F O=O N N
14 Properties of covalent compounds Most covalent compounds are molecular: Strong bonds between atoms Weak bonds between molecules Gases, liquids and solids at room temperature May be hard or soft (diamond is a covalent solid) May be soluble in polar or non-polar solvents Solutions and melts do not conduct electricity
15 Polar bonds The ionic bond and the equally shared covalent bond are two extremes Complete transfer of charge to equal sharing of charge Many bonds fall in between: atoms of different elements have different attraction for electrons
16 Electronegativity The degree to which an atom attracts electrons towards itself in a bond with another atom highly electronegative atom attracts electrons weakly electronegative atom does not
17 Table of electronegativity Most electronegative Least electronegative
18 Increasing electronegativity difference increases polarity
19 Polar bonds and polar molecules Any bond containing different elements will be polar to some degree For a molecule to be polar will depend upon how the bonds are arranged A molecule may contain polar bonds and be itself non-polar We need to understand the molecular structure
20 Diatomic molecules are easy
21 Lewis dot structures: doing the dots Molecular structure reduced to simplest terms showing only the arrangements of the valence electrons as dots in a 2-dimensional figure Show only valence electrons Electrons are either in: bonds lone pairs (stable molecules do not contain unpaired electrons with very few exceptions) Octet rule is guiding principle for distribution of electrons in the molecule
22 Lewis dot structures made easy: the Start with the skeleton of the molecule Least electronegative element is the central atom S = N - A S = N A machine N = total number of electrons required to fill octet for each atom in the molecule (8 for each element, except 2 for H and 6 for B) A = total number of valence electrons S = total number of electrons in bonds We are given N and A; we need to find S 1. Determine molecule skeleton 2. Calculate N: dots required to complete octets: 8 for each atom, 2 for hydrogen 3. Calculate A: total number of valence electrons 4. Calculate S = N A Number of electrons in bonds 5. Complete bonds with dots equal to S 6. Complete octets with remaining dots (A S)
23 Applying the rules Calculate N for the molecule Calculate A (all the dots) NF 3 N F F F include charges for ions (add one for each ve charge and subtract one for each +ve charge) Determine S (no of dots in bonds) (S = N A) Satisfy all octets and create number of bonds dictated by S (may be multiple bonds) N = 8(N) + 3 x 8(F) = 32 A = 5(N) + 3 x 7(F) = 26 S = = 6 F N F F
24 Dot structure for SO2
25 Two tests for dot structures Is the number of dots in the molecule equal to the number of valence electrons? Are all the octets satisfied? If both yes structure is valid If either no then back to the drawing board
26 Expansion of the octet Elements in second row invariably obey the octet rule The heavy congeners regularly disobey it Consider: OF 2 but SF 6 NCl 3 but PCl 5 Octet expansion is a consequence of the availability of vacant 3d orbitals to the third row, where there are no 2d orbitals in the second row
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