Stains such as Giemsa that bind to DNA make condensed chromosomes visible
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1 CHROMOSOMES and KARYOTYPES Chromosomes of higher organisms (eukaryotes) contain DNA and protein. One long DNA double helix is present per chromatid DNA is highly organized in association with histones (protein) 5 histones are highly conserved from 1 species to another 4 histones (2 copies of each) make a ball 1 histone links adjacent balls together 146 base pairs of DNA wrap around each ball (2 loops/ball) each ball is a nucleosome Nucleosomes are coiled into solenoids (6 nucleosomes/solenoid) solenoids also coil, forming a fiber fibers coil to give a visible (microscopic) chromosome Chromosomes can best be seen when they are highly condensed at metaphase Stains such as Giemsa that bind to DNA make condensed chromosomes visible Adding colchicine to actively dividing cells destroys spindle fibers and traps the chromosomes at metaphase Page 1 of 5
2 Individual chromosomes can be cut from a picture and aligned by pairs For an example, see : By convention, the largest chromosome pair is #1, the next # 2 etc. The resulting picture shows the karyotype (chromosome composition) of the individual. Page 2 of 5
3 Humans have 23 "pairs" of chromosomes; 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair (XX 0r XY) of sex chromosomes Special techniques produce banding patterns that permit chromosomes of similar size and shape to be distinguished Especially useful are fluorescent probes that identify individual chromosomes based on DNA hybridization (FISH or fluorescent in situ hybridization) Dyes that result in different colors help in karyotyping; See Chromosome vary in relative length of the arms and position of the centromere; telocentric: the centromere is at the end (telomere) of the chromosome metacentric: the centromere is near the middle submetacentric: slightly off-center acrocentric: very off center Centromeres provide the point of attachment (kinetochore) for pulling daughter chromosomes to opposite poles in mitosis and meiosis. Telomeresare very special; they cannot replicate using DNA polymerase. Telomeres: are short highly repeated sequences that protect the ends of chromosomes from exonucleases grow shorter with age in most cells are maintained by telomerase enzyme in germline cells, and in some cancer cells The number of chromosomes varies between species: Humans Dogs 46 (23 pairs) per diploid cell 78 (39 pairs) Cats 38 (19 pairs) Page 3 of 5
4 Horses 64 (32 pairs) Ducks 80 Alligator 32 Drosophila (fruitflies) 8 Horsetail 216 Sequoia 22 A genome is one complete set of chromosomes "ploidy" refers to the number of sets of chromosomes per cell Gametes each contain one genome so are haploid Most body cells contain 2 sets so are diploid The amount of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) per genome varies among species Some viruses have only around a thousand bases, enough for 3 genes Humans have over 3 billion base pairs per genome Amphibians and some primitive plants have times as much DNA as mammals. Crickets have 10 times as much DNA/cell as Fruitflies Yeast, a eukaryotic fungus, and E. coli, a bacterium, both have about 6,000 genes even though yeast has more DNA/genome Much of the eukaryotic genome consists of highly repeated sequences that do not function as genes. Pictures showing organization of chromosomes in pro- and eukaryotes can be seen at: Page 4 of 5
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