Minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, usually non biologic, crystalline solid, which is physically and chemically distinctive.
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1 Minerals A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, usually non biologic, crystalline solid, which is physically and chemically distinctive. Form in the geosphere (most minerals), hydrosphere (e.g., halite, gypsum), biosphere (e.g., calcite, aragonite), and even the atmosphere (e.g., water ice, as snow) Consistent and recognizable physical and chemical properties
2 Composition of Earth s Crust Common elements Nearly 98% of the atoms in Earth s crust are represented by the 8 most common elements O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg Common mineral types Most minerals are silicates (contain Si and O bonded together) Minerals have crystalline structures Regular 3-D arrangement of atoms
3 Silicate Structures The Silicon-Oxygen tetrahedron Strongly bonded silicate ion Basic structure for silicate minerals Sharing of O atoms in tetrahedra The more shared O atoms per tetrahedron, the more complex the silicate structure Isolated tetrahedra (none shared) Chain silicates (2 shared) Double-chain silicates (alternating 2 and 3 shared) Sheet silicates (3 shared) Framework silicates (4 shared)
4
5 Garnet Augite (inosilicate) Tremolite (amphibole) Biotite (mica) Quartz Feldsapr (albite)
6 Carbonates Non-silicate Minerals Contain CO 3 in their structures (e.g., calcite - CaCO 3 ) Sulfates Contain SO 4 in their structures (e.g., gypsum - CaSO 4. 2H 2 O) Sulfides Contain S (but no O) in their structures (e.g., pyrite - FeS 2 ) Oxides Contain O, but not bonded to Si, C or S (e.g., hematite - Fe 2 O 3 ) Native elements Composed entirely of one element (e.g., diamond - C; gold - Au)
7 Minerals A mineral must meet the following criteria: Crystalline solid Atoms are arranged in a consistent and orderly geometric pattern Forms through natural geological processes Has a specific chemical composition May include some internal compositional variation, such as the solid solution of Ca and Na in plagioclase) Rock-forming minerals Although over 4000 minerals have been identified, only a few hundred are common enough to be generally important to geology (rock-forming minerals) Over 90% of Earth s crust is composed of minerals from only 5 groups (feldspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, quartz)
8 Ore minerals Minerals of commercial value Minerals Most are non-silicates (primary source of metals) Examples: magnetite and hematite (iron), chalcopyrite (copper), galena (lead), sphalerite (zinc) Must be able to be extracted profitably to be considered current resources Gemstones Prized for their beauty and (often) hardness May be commercially useful Diamond, corundum, garnet, and quartz are used as abrasives
9 Mineral Properties Physical and chemical properties of minerals are closely linked to their atomic structures and compositions Color Visible hue of a mineral Streak Color left behind when mineral is scraped on unglazed porcelain Luster Manner in which light reflects off surface of a mineral Hardness Scratch-resistance Crystal form External geometric form
10 Mineral Properties Cleavage Breakage along flat planes Fracture Irregular breakage Specific gravity Density relative to that of water Magnetism Attracted to magnet Chemical reaction Calcite fizzes in dilute HCl
11 Crystal Habit appearance in hand specimens Massive, Granular, Compact Lamellar, Micaceous, Bladed Fibrous, Acicular, Radiating Dendritic Banded, Concentric, Geodes Botryoidal, Globular, Stalactitic Oölitic, Pisolitic find grained layered needlelike branching bands orbs etc. pea like
12 Now to Rocks. What is the difference between a rock and a mineral?
13 The Rock Cycle A rock is a naturally formed, consolidated material usually composed of grains of one or more minerals The rock cycle shows how one type of rocky material gets transformed into another Representation of how rocks are formed, broken down, and processed in response to changing conditions Processes may involve interactions of geosphere with hydrosphere, atmosphere and/or biosphere Arrows indicate possible process paths within the cycle
14 Imagine the first rock and the cycles that it has been through.
15 The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics Magma is created by melting of rock above a subduction zone Less dense magma rises and cools to form igneous rock Igneous rock exposed at surface gets weathered into sediment Sediments transported to low areas, buried and hardened into sedimentary rock Convergent plate boundary Sedimentary rock heated and squeezed at depth to form metamorphic rock Metamorphic rock may heat up and melt at depth to form magma
16 Igneous Rocks Magma is molten rock Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma solidifies underground Granite is a common example Extrusive igneous rocks form when magma solidifies at the Earth s surface (lava) Basalt is a common example Granite Basalt
17 Igneous Rock Textures Texture refers to the size, shape and arrangement of grains or other constituents within a rock Texture of igneous rocks is primarily controlled by cooling rate Extrusive igneous rocks cool quickly at or near Earth s surface and are typically finegrained (most crystals <1 mm) Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly deep beneath Earth s surface and are typically coarse-grained (most crystals >1 mm) Fine-grained igneous rock Coarse-grained igneous roc
18 The basics of igneous rock textures Fast cooling small xtals Slow cooling large xtals It is a function of viscosity of the melt, which is controlled by composition and temperature.
19 Coarse grained igneous rock
20 Fine grained igneous rock
21 Special Igneous Textures A pegmatite is an extremely coarse-grained igneous rock (most crystals >5 cm) formed when magma cools very slowly at depth A glassy texture contains no crystals at all, and is formed by extremely rapid cooling A porphyritic texture includes two distinct crystal sizes, with the larger having formed first during slow cooling underground and the small forming during more rapid cooling at the Earth s surface Pegmatitic igneous rock Porphyritic igneous rock
22 Pegmatite: Very coarse grained igneous rock
23 Porphyritic igneous rock: Big xtals in a fine grain matrix
24 Igneous Rock Identification Igneous rock names are based on texture (grain size) and mineralogic composition Textural classification Plutonic rocks (gabbro-diorite-granite) are coarse-grained and cooled slowly at depth Volcanic rocks (basalt-andesite-rhyolite) are typically fine-grained and cooled rapidly at the Earth s surface Compositional classification Mafic rocks (gabbro-basalt) contain abundant dark-colored ferromagnesian minerals Intermediate rocks (diorite-andesite) contain roughly equal amounts of dark- and light-colored minerals Felsic rocks (granite-rhyolite) contain abundant light-colored minerals
25 Igneous Rock Identification Igneous rock names are based on texture (grain size) and mineralogic composition
26
27 Devil s Tower; a volcanic neck, a feeder pipe
28 Sill; parallels layers in the country rock
29 Dike; cuts across layers in the country rock
30 Half Dome; part of the Sierra Nevada batholith
31 Bowen s Reaction Series
32 Six common Igneous Rocks 1000 C Solidifying Temperature Increasing Grain Size 500 C Volcanic Rocks Basalt Silica Content low Minerals Present (in order of abundance) pyroxene, olivine, feldspar, & amphibole Andesite intermediate feldspar, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite mica Rhyolite high feldspar, quartz, muscovite mica, & amphibole Plutonic Rocks Gabbro Diorite Granite Lighter Color
33 Lessons from Bowen s Reaction Series Large variety of igneous rocks is produced by large variety of magma compositions Mafic magmas will crystallize into basalt or gabbro if early-formed minerals are not removed from the magma Intermediate magmas will similarly crystallize into diorite or andesite if minerals are not removed Separation of early-formed ferromagnesian minerals from a magma body increases the silica content of the remaining magma Minerals melt in the reverse order of that in which they crystallize from a magma >>>> partial melting!!!
34 Magma Evolution A change in the composition of a magma body is known as magma evolution Magma evolution can occur by differentiation, partial melting, assimilation, or magma mixing Differentiation involves the changing of magma composition by the removal of denser early-formed ferromagnesian minerals by crystal settling Partial melting produces magmas less mafic than their source rocks, because lower melting point minerals are more felsic in composition
35 Differentiation Magma chamber fills Early formed mafic minerals crystallize and settle (or are otherwise separated from the residual melt) The remaining melt is enriched in silica
36 Magma Evolution I Assimilation occurs when a hot magma melts and incorporates more felsic surrounding country rock Insert new Fig here Xenolith
37 Magma Evolution II Magma mixing involves the mixing of more and less mafic magmas to produce one of intermediate composition
38 Metamorphism The transformation of rock by temperature and pressure Metamorphic rocks are produced by transformation of: Igneous, sedimentary and igneous rxs Thanks to CU Boulder Geology Dept for use of some of these slides
39 Metamorphism Metamorphism progresses from low to high grades Rocks remain solid during metamorphism
40 What causes metamorphism? Heat Most important agent Heat drives recrystallization - creates new, stable minerals Pressure (stress) Increases with depth Pressure can be applied equally in all directions or differentially
41 Main factor affecting metamorphism Parent rock Metamorphic rocks typically have the same chemical composition as the rock they were formed from Different minerals, but made of the same stuff. Exception: gases (carbon dioxide, CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O) may be released
42 Progressive metamorphism of a shale Shale
43 Progressive metamorphism of a shale Slate
44 Progressive metamorphism of a shale Phyllite
45 Progressive metamorphism of a shale Schist
46 Progressive metamorphism of a shale Gneiss
47 Metamorphism Three types of metamorphic settings: Contact metamorphism from a rise in temperature within host rock Hydrothermal metamorphism chemical alterations from hot, ion-rich water Regional metamorphism -- Occurs in the cores of mountain belts and makes great volumes of metamorphic rock
48 Common metamorphic rocks Nonfoliated rocks Quartzite Formed from a parent rock of quartz-rich sandstone Quartz grains are fused together Forms in intermediate T, P conditions
49 Sample of quartzite Thin section of quartzite
50 Common metamorphic rocks Nonfoliated rocks Marble Coarse, crystalline Parent rock usually limestone Composed of calcite crystals Fabric can be random or oriented
51 Marble (Random fabric = annealing; nonfoliated)
52 Change in metamorphic grade with depth
53 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Slate Very fine-grained Excellent rock cleavage Made by low-grade metamorphism of shale
54 Example of slate
55 Slate roof
56 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Phyllite Grade of metamorphism between slate and schist Made of small platy minerals Glossy sheen with rock cleavage Composed mainly of muscovite and/or chlorite
57 Phyllite (left) and Slate (right) lack visible mineral grains
58 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Schist Medium- to coarse-grained Comprised of platy minerals (micas) The term schist describes the texture To indicate composition, mineral names are used (such as mica schist)
59 Mica Schist - note well developed foliation
60 A mica garnet schist
61 Common metamorphic rocks Foliated rocks Gneiss Medium- to coarse-grained Banded appearance High-grade metamorphism Composed of light-colored feldspar layers with bands of dark mafic minerals
62 Gneiss displays bands of light and dark minerals
63 What are metamorphic textures? Texture refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains within a rock Foliation planar arrangement of mineral grains within a rock
64 Outcrop of foliated gneiss
65 Metamorphic textures Foliation Foliation can form in various ways: Rotation of platy or elongated minerals Recrystallization of minerals in a preferred orientation Changing the shape of equidimensional grains into elongated and aligned shapes
66 Flattened Pebble Conglomerate = flattening
67 Development of foliation due to directed pressure
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