Individual Differences and Academic Achievement: What Does the Research Tells us About Reading? Gloria Maccow, Ph.D., Assessment Training Consultant
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1 Individual Differences and Academic Achievement: What Does the Research Tell Us About Reading? Gloria Maccow, Ph.D. Assessment Training Consultant Objectives Describe research-based cognitive factors that predict performance in reading. Describe assessment batteries to identify subtypes of reading disability. Describe interventions based on subtype of reading disability. 2 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Reading Reading is made up of two major parts: Pronouncing written words (decoding), and Comprehending words and text. A major correlate of comprehension is vocabulary size. Comprehension Vocabulary 3 Copyright All rights reserved. Reading Skills Grade K and above Skills Name letters accurately. Identify and generate rhyming words. Segment syllables and phonemes in spoken words. Name real words accurately (without context clues). Decode pseudowords accurately (without semantic cues). Name real words accurately and quickly (without context clues). Decode pseudowords accurately and quickly (w/o semantic cues). Name real words accurately and quickly without context clues. Decode pseudowords accurately and quickly w/o semantic cues. Decode silently. Read silently with fluency. Comprehend words. Comprehend sentences. Comprehend paragraphs. 4 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 2
3 Three Types of Struggling Readers Adequate Decoding Deficient Nonspecific Reading Disability (Hyperlexia) Garden Variety poor readers Specific Reading Disability (Dyslexia) Deficient Adequate Comprehension 5 Copyright All rights reserved. What is Dyslexia? Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. (IDA; Adopted by the Board of Directors: November 12, 2002) 6 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 3
4 What is Dyslexia? These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. (IDA; Adopted by the Board of Directors: November 12, 2002) 7 Copyright All rights reserved. What are the research-based cognitive factors that underlie performance in reading? Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 4
5 Shaywitz (2003)... the deficit responsible for dyslexia resides in the language system. Dyslexia does not reflect an overall defect in language, but, rather, a localized weakness within a specific component of the language system: the phonologic module. Discourse Syntax Semantics (pp ) Phonology 9 Copyright All rights reserved. Shaywitz (2003) Decoding (Word ID) Reading Comprehension (Meaning) Dyslexia Language System Discourse Syntax Semantics Reading Comprehension Phonology Decoding (p. 52) 10 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 5
6 Shaywitz (2003) (p. 145) 11 Copyright All rights reserved. Shaywitz (2003) Researchers used fmri to study activation sites in the brain as children read both real and nonsense words. 12 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 6
7 Bell, McCallum, Cox (2003) Factor Auditory Processing Visual Processing/ Speed Letter-Word Calling Reading Comprehension Decoding Spelling Memory Copyright All rights reserved. Reading Disorder and Cognitive Weaknesses Cognitive Ability Phonological Awareness Phonologic Awareness (specifically Phonemic Awareness Phonological Memory and Verbal Working Memory Phonologic Memory Phonological Retrieval (word finding, rapid naming, and RAN). RAN Research Study Catts & Hogan, Shaywitz, Catts & Hogan, Shaywitz, Catts & Hogan, Shaywitz, Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 7
8 Rapid Automatic Naming Wolf and Bowers (1999) have shown that rapid automatic naming (RAN) tasks are consistently predictive of word-level reading difficulties as well as passage comprehension. Rapid letter naming tasks were more predictive of word level reading skills than tasks involving the naming of familiar objects. 15 Copyright All rights reserved. Special Group Study (DAS-II) Reading Disorder Composite RD Mean Control Mean Mean Diff. p value Std. Diff. Verbal < Nonverbal Reasoning < Spatial < School Readiness Working Memory Processing Speed < < < DAS-II; n = 46; ages 7:0 13:11 16 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 8
9 Special Group Study (NEPSY-II) Reading Disability Score Attention and Executive Functioning RD Mean Control Mean Mean Diff. p value Std. Diff. CL Total Score < IN Naming Total Completion Time < CL = Clocks; IN = Inhibition NEPSY-II; n = Copyright All rights reserved. Score Special Group Study (NEPSY-II) Reading Disability RD Mean Language Control Mean NEPSY-II; n = 36 Mean Diff. p value Std. Diff. CI Total Score < PH Total Score < SN Total Completion Time SN Combined Scaled Score < < CI = Comprehension of Instructions; PH = Phonological Processing; SN = Speeded Naming. 18 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 9
10 Reading-Related Processes (Berninger, 2007) Encoding Segmenting Phonological Awareness Morphological Awareness Vocabulary Knowledge Concept Knowledge Expressive Language Verbal Working Memory Executive Functions 19 Copyright All rights reserved. Coding Word Forms in Verbal Working Memory (Berninger, 2007) 20 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 10
11 Phonological Loop (Berninger, 2007) 21 Copyright All rights reserved. Executive Functions Switching Set (Berninger, 2007) 22 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 11
12 Executive Functions Inhibition (Berninger, 2007) 23 Copyright All rights reserved. Executive Functions Monitoring (Berninger, 2007) 24 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 12
13 Written Language Problems Based on a Working Memory Architecture (Berninger, 2007) Supports oral reading Supports writing language and writing math 25 Copyright All rights reserved. Written Language Problems and the Three Word Forms (Berninger, 2007) 26 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 13
14 Individual differences in Reading Achievement: Subtypes of Specific Reading Disability Subtypes of Specific (Reading) LD Phonological/Dysphonetic Subtype Unable to use a phonological route to bridge letters and sounds. Frequently guesses words based on initial letter. Over-relies on visual and orthographic cues to identify words in print. Tends to memorize whole words because of poor decoding strategies. Orthographic/Surface/Dyseidetic Subtype Unable to automatically, effortlessly recognize printed words. Read letter-by-letter and sound-bysound. Struggle to name words with nonpredictable patterns e.g., island = izland. Fluency is adversely affected. 28 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 14
15 Subtypes of Specific (Reading) LD Most severe type of RD. Mixed Subtype No usable key to unlock the functional code of literacy. Has difficulty across the language spectrum poor phonological processing, slow rapid and automatic word recognition, inconsistent language comprehension. 29 Copyright All rights reserved. Assessment to Identify Subtypes of Specific Reading Disability Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 15
16 Assessment Battery for Reading Difficulties phonological processing skills, rapid naming, auditory working memory, general language functioning, verbal learning, visuospatial skills, executive functions, and fine-motor skills. 31 Copyright All rights reserved. Assessment Questions and Instruments Question Is there evidence to support a deficit in reading skill relative to age and education? Assess (at a minimum) letter and word reading, nonsense word reading, spelling, reading comprehension. Assessment Instrument(s) KTEA-II PAL-II QRI WIAT-III WJ-III Tests of Achievement WRMT-III 32 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 16
17 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test Third Edition Composite/Subtests Standard Score (Mean=100) Percentile Rank Oral Language Listening Comprehension Oral Expression Basic Reading 72 3 Word Reading 66 1 Pseudoword Decoding 77 6 Reading Comprehension and Fluency 72 3 Reading Comprehension Oral Reading Fluency 63 1 Written Expression Spelling 78 7 Sentence Composition 80 9 Mathematics Numerical Operations Mathematics Problem Solving Mathematics Fluency Score for Reading Comprehension and for Oral Reading Fluency is based on grade 1 item set. 33 Copyright All rights reserved. Assessment Questions and Instruments Question Is there evidence to support a deficit in the phonological component of language? Assessment Instrument(s) CTOPP Blending and Segmenting Subtests DAS-II Phonological Processing Subtest KTEA-II Phonological Awareness Subtest NEPSY-II Phonological Processing Subtest PAL-II Rhyming, Syllables, Phonemes, Rimes WJ-III Sound Awareness, Sound Blending, and Incomplete Words Subtests 34 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 17
18 Phonological Processing (DAS-II) Discrepancy Comparisons Ability Score 1 Ability Score 2 Diff. Critical Value Sig. Diff. Y / N Rhyming - Blending N Rhyming - Deletion N Rhyming Phoneme ID & Segmentation N Blending - Deletion N Blending Phoneme ID & Segmentation Deletion Phoneme ID & Segmentation Y N 35 Copyright All rights reserved. Assessment Questions and Instruments Question Is the identified deficit in the phonological component of language unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities? Assessment Instrument(s) DAS-II PAL-II Receptive Coding, Expressive Coding, RAN Letters and Letter-Groups, Are They Related?, Does it Fit? WISC-IV WJ-III Tests of Cognitive Abilities 36 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 18
19 Assessment Questions and Instruments Question Is the identified deficit in the phonological component of language unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities? Assessment Instrument(s) NEPSY-II Comprehension of Instructions, Speeded Naming, Auditory Attention and Response Set, Inhibition, Memory for Names and Memory for Names Delayed, Word List Interference D-KEFS Color-Word Interference Test 37 Copyright All rights reserved. Diagnostic Subtests Cluster/Diagnostic Subtest Differential Ability Scales-Second Edition (DAS-II) Standard Score (Mean=100) T-Score (Mean= 50) Percentile Rank Working Memory (MV = narrow ability) Recall of Sequential Order (Gsm) Recall of Digits Backward (Gsm) Processing Speed (Gs) Speed of Information Processing (Gs) Rapid Naming (Gs) Other Diagnostic Subtests Recall of Objects Immediate (Glr) Recall of Objects Delayed (Glr) Recall of Digits Forward (Gsm) Recognition of Pictures (Gv) Phonological Processing (Ga) Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 19
20 Concordance-Discordance Model of SLD Diagnosis Processing Strength Significant Difference Achievement Deficit Processing Weakness (Hale & Fiorello, 2004) 39 Copyright All rights reserved. Interventions Subtypes of Reading Disability (from Feifer, 2000) Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 20
21 Phonological Subtype Age < 7 yrs 7-12 yrs > 12 yrs Program Fast ForWord Earobics I Phono-Graphix Lindamood Phonemic Sequencing Program (LIPS) Alphabetic Phonics (Orton-Gillingham) Slingerland VAKT Approach Project Read Lindamood Phonemic Sequencing Program (LIPS) Wilson Reading System SRA Corrective Reading 41 Copyright All rights reserved. Orthographic Subtype Age < 7 yrs 7-12 yrs > 12 yrs Program Analytic or Embedded Phonics Approach DISTAR Reading Recovery Great Leaps Reading Neurological Impress method Neurological Impress method Wilson Reading System Laubach Way to Reading 42 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 21
22 Mixed Subtype Use an eclectic approach capitalizing on the neurodevelopmental strengths of the child. Use multisensory or any of the aforementioned programs depending upon the age, skill level, and neurodevelopmental profile of the child. 43 Copyright All rights reserved. Verbal Working Memory Interventions Elaborative Rehearsal Associate meaning with stimuli. Keeps information active in WM without repetition and also facilitates moving information to LTM. Semantic Rehearsal Brief sentences using the word to be remembered. 44 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 22
23 Dual Encoding Executive Working Memory Interventions Strategies utilizing concurrent visual and verbal encoding. Some dual encoding occurs naturally (reading). In the classroom, visual and verbal materials should be utilized. 45 Copyright All rights reserved. Working Memory Training An Evidence-based intervention for working memory training Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 23
24 References Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol 8. London: Academic Press. Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Science, 4, Baddeley, A. D. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Neuroscience, 4, Copyright All rights reserved. References Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 63:1 29. Bell, S. M., McCallum, R. S., & Cox, E. A. (2003). Toward a research-based assessment of dyslexia: Using cognitive measures to identify reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, pp Berninger, V. W. (2007). PAL-II user s guide. San Antonio, TX: Pearson. 48 Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 24
25 References Catts, H. W., & Hogan, T. P. (2003). Language basis of reading disabilities and implications for early identification and remediation. Reading Psychology, 24, Feifer, S. G., & De Fina, P. A. (2000). The neuropsychology of reading disorders: Diagnosis and intervention workbook. Middletown, MD: School Neuropsych Press, LLC. Hale, J. B., & Fiorello, C. A. (2004). School neuropsychology: A practitioner s handbook. New York: Guilford. 49 Copyright All rights reserved. Hale. References Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York: Vintage Books. Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The doubledeficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, Copyright All rights reserved. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 25
26 Customer Service (USA) (Canada) Comments or Questions Gloria Maccow, Ph.D. Copyright Pearson, Inc. All rights reserved. 26
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