Chapter 1. Vacuum Evaporation

Transcription

1 Table of Contents Chapter 1. Vacuum Evaporation Aimé RICHARDT and Isabelle RICHARDT 1.1. Definitions and theoretical bases: notions of vapor pressure and mean free path Thermodynamic and kinetic bases Equilibrium vapor pressure Notions and values of vapor pressures Mean free path of gas molecules Theory of thermal evaporation, mechanisms, emission laws. Nucleation and growth of thin layers deposited by evaporation Theory of thermal evaporation Evaporation rate Evaporation mechanisms Cosinusoidal law of emission Theory of the nucleation and of the development of thin layers deposited by evaporation Evolution of the microstructure of deposits and zone-structure models (M-D diagram) Deposition procedures General points Joule effect evaporation sources Plasma and electron bombardment evaporation sources. Arc evaporation; evaporation by laser ablation Examples of industrial applications of vacuum evaporations Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) Optical thin films Practice of industrial aluminum evaporations Bibliography... 52

2 vi Vapor Surface Treatments Chapter 2. Cathode Sputtering Yves PAULEAU 2.1. Introduction Principles of direct current diode cathode sputtering Sputtering mechanisms Sputtering yield Characterization of ejected particles Nature of particles ejected from the target Energy of sputtered particles Angular distribution of the flux of sputtered particles Thin layer deposition by cathode sputtering Objectives Optimization of deposition conditions Processes of low pressure sputtering deposition D.C triode configuration sputtering system Sputtering using high frequency excited plasma Magnetron sputtering Radiofrequency (RF) or high-frequency (HF) sputtering Deposition processes by reactive sputtering Characteristics of thin films deposited by cathode sputtering Nucleation and growth of layers Microstructure of films deposited by sputtering Purity of sputter deposited layers Adherence of sputter deposited layers Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 3. Ion Implantation and Ion Beam Assisted Deposition Jean-Paul RIVIÈRE 3.1. Introduction General aspects of ion-solid interaction Description of phenomena Advantages and limitations of ion implantation Physical mechanisms and principles of the different techniques Ion implantation Ion mixing Ion beam assisted deposition Surface modifications by ion implantation Formation of new phases Improving wear resistance Improving oxidation resistance and corrosion Coatings produced by ion beam assistance

3 Table of Contents vii Low energy assisted deposits Dynamic ion mixing coatings Evolution of ion implantation technique Motivations Plasma immersion implantation High-flux low energy diffusion implantation Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 4. Chemical Vapor Deposition: Principles and Applications Elisabeth BLANQUET and Frédéric SCHUSTER 4.1. Introduction CVD processes CVD reactors Precursors and introduction methods Process modeling Description of phenomena Description of limiting steps Implementation of macroscopic models Thermodynamic simulation of CVD of a (Ti,Al)N metastable phase Industrial applications Introduction Applications of CVD process in the nuclear field Industrial applications of plasma assisted CVD process List of symbols Bibliography Chapter 5. Laser or Plasma Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition Jean DESMAISON, Christelle TIXIER and Pascal TRISTANT 5.1. From thermal CVD to assisted CVD Plasma assisted CVD Principle Effect of the excitation frequency Influence of the discharge position in relation to the excitation structure Effect of using a magnetic field Influence of the position of the substrate with regard to the discharge Plasma modeling and characterization Applications Case study Laser assisted CVD

4 viii Vapor Surface Treatments Principle Different configurations Applications Reactive laser ablation Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 6. Coupled Phenomena Modeling in CVD Michel PONS and Francis BAILLET 6.1. Introduction Modeling and simulation paths of CVD process Principle Thermodynamic approach Kinetic approach Simultaneous transfers approach Conclusion Macroscopic modeling of reactive transport phenomena General hypotheses General equations Reactions Conclusion commercial codes Databases, preliminary calculations Thermodynamic data Kinetic data Conclusion Simulation of reactors Vertical reactors Horizontal reactors Conclusion Symbols used Bibliography Chapter 7. Gas Phase Carburation and Carbonitriding of Steels Jacky DULCY and Michel GANTOIS 7.1. Introduction Basic principle of a gas-solid heterogenous reaction Physicochemical mechanisms of the carbon transfer by a heterogenous gas-solid reaction Definition of mass transfer coefficient Material transfer in austenitic phase Conclusion

5 Table of Contents ix 7.3. Carbon monoxide cementation (traditional procedures) Generation of atmospheres Definition of carbon potential Influence of alloying elements on the carbon potential Interface physicochemical processes Solid state carbon transfer Hydrocarbon cementation (recent procedures) Physicochemical mechanisms Transfer of solid state carbon Industrial implementation of solid-gas cementation reactions of steels Thermal and hydrodynamic characteristics of reactors Cementation at atmospheric pressure Hydrocarbon cementation at a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure Heat treatments after cementation or carbonitriding Cementation and carbonitriding steels Complementary heat treatments Structural defects in the surface layer Industrial processes of quenching deformations Industrial processes Load furnaces Continuous furnaces Furnaces operating at reduced pressures Example of use Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 8. Ion Nitriding and Afterglow Treatments Thierry BELMONTE, Thierry CZERWIEC and Henri MICHEL 8.1. Ion nitriding and applications Introduction Metallurgical principles of pure iron and iron-based alloys nitriding Principle and production of plasma Fundamental mechanisms of diode discharges Practical and industrial aspects Technological developments in ion nitriding New metallurgical applications for ion nitriding Afterglow treatments Introduction Implementation of spatial discharges Early and late afterglows

6 x Vapor Surface Treatments Late afterglows as active species sources Afterglow treatments Bibliography Chapter 9. Pack Cementation Alain GALERIE and Yves WOUTERS 9.1. Principle Fundamental aspects Chemistry of the cement Gas-substrate reaction Mass transport Composition and morphology of the cemented layer Industrial applications Nickel-based superalloy aluminizing Chromizing and chromaluminizing irons and steels Other applications Evolutions of the process Out of pack cementations Gaseous cementations Bibliography List of authors Index