Chapter 14, Part 1! Chapter 14 Part 1, Brain! The Brain and Cranial Nerves! pp !
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1 Chapter 14, Part 1! The Brain and Cranial Nerves! pp ! SECTION 14-1! The brain has several principal structures, each with specific functions! Herculano-Houzel and her colleagues used a technique to analyze the brains of four deceased men and published their results in 2009: they consistently found a whole human brain glia to neuron ratio of almost exactly 1:1. Specifically, they found that the human brain contains about billion cells, 86.1 billion of which are neurons and 84.6 billion of which are glial cells. ( brainwaves/2012/06/13/know-your-neurons-what-is-theratio-of-glia-to-neurons-in-the-brain/ )! 2! Principal Parts 1! 1. Brain stem! Medulla! Pons! Midbrain (mesencephalon)! 2. Cerebellum (2 hemispheres)! 3. Diencephalon! Thalamus! Hypothalamus (Infundibulum connects to pituitary)! Epithalamus! Pineal gland, choroid plexus! 3! 1!
2 !! Chapter 14 Part 1, Brain! Principal Parts 2! 4. Cerebrum (cerebral cortex)! Two cerebral hemispheres, each contains a:! Frontal lobe! Parietal lobe! Temporal lobe! Occipital lobe! 4! Embryology of the Brain! Neural tube with neurocoel = a hollow tube! Develops primary brain vesicles! 1. Prosencephalon ( forebrain )! 2. Mesencephalon ( midbrain )! 3. Rhombencephalon ( hindbrain )! Primary vesicles develop into secondary vesicles! 5! Secondary Brain Vesicles! 1. Prosencephalon becomes:! A. Telencephalon cerebrum! B. Diencephalon! 2. Mesencephalon midbrain! 3. Rhombencephalon becomes:! A. Metencephalon cerebellum and pons! B. Myelencephalon medulla (oblongata)! See Table 14-1! 6! 2!
3 Development of the Brain Table 14-1! 7! Ventricles of the Brain Figure 14-2! See brain ventricle model in lab.! 8! Ventricles! Fluid-filled chambers within the brain! Neurocoel develops into the ventricles! Lined with ependymal cells! Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)! Produced by choroid plexuses in all ventricles! 9! 3!
4 SECTION 14-2! The brain is protected and supported by the cranial meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain barrier! Cranial bones! Cranial meninges! Cerebrospinal fluid! Blood-brain barrier! 10! Cranial Meninges! 1. Dura mater! Endosteal layer! Thicker part, fused with periosteum! Meningeal layer! Thinner part, next to arachnoid membrane!! Forms dural folds which:! Stabilize and support brain! Contain dural (venous) sinuses! Between endosteal and meningeal layers! Contain venous blood (and CSF)! 11! The Cranial Meninges Figure 14-3a! 12! 4!
5 Dural Folds! A. Falx cerebri (falx = sickle )! Between cerebral hemispheres! Superior and inferior sagittal sinuses! B. Tentorium cerebelli! Between cerebrum and cerebellum! Transverse sinus! C. Falx cerebelli! Between cerebellar hemispheres! A.! C.! B.! 13! Arachnoid Membrane and Pia Mater! 2. Arachnoid! Subarachnoid space contains CSF! Membrane does not follow into sulci! 3. Pia mater! Closely adheres to brain surface! Follows sulci! Arachnoid! Pia mater! 14! Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) Functions! Formed by choroid plexuses! Cushions brain! Supports brain (brain floats in CSF)! Actual mass about 1400 grams! Effective weight in CSF about 25 grams! Transports nutrients, wastes, chemicals! Turnover rate: about 4x - 5x per day! Note that, except in the choroid plexuses, there is a free exchange of fluids and solutes between CSF and the extracellular fluid of the brain. Why is this important? 15! 5!
6 CSF Formation by Choroid Plexuses! 1. Leaky (permeable) capillaries covered by ependymal cells! 2. Ependymal cells joined by tight junctions Secrete CSF from fluid filtered by leaky capillaries! Remove wastes from CSF! Composition of CSF is different from blood! No blood cells! Much less protein! Lower ph! 16! Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid Figure 14-4! Arachnoid granulation! (cluster of villi)! 17! CSF Circulation (Also good for blood tracing next term.)! Lateral ventricles! Interventricular foramen (of Monro)! Third ventricle! Cerebral aqueduct! Fourth ventricle! Central canal of spinal cord or lateral and median apertures! Subarachnoid space! Arachnoid villi/granulations! Superior sagittal sinus Venous return to heart! 18! 6!
7 Blood Supply to the Brain! Arterial supply:! Internal carotid and vertebral arteries! Venous return:! Dural sinuses internal jugular (most)! Vasomotion:! Neurons rely on glucose - blood supply must be continuous (no energy or oxygen reserves)! Metabolism CO 2 [H + ] vasodilation blood flow! (remember: CO 2 + H 2 O H 2 CO 3 H + + HCO 3- )! 19! Blood-Brain Barrier 1! 1. Brain capillary endothelial cells have tight junctions! Restricts diffusion of non-lipid materials! Water and ions move through cells via channels! Large, water-soluble materials may be transported actively! Glucose constantly transported into brain ECF! 2. Astrocytes (chapter 12)! Pseudopods cover capillaries! Regulate capillary permeability, blood flow! Note that choroid plexus has blood-csf barrier produced by ependymal cells! 20! Blood-Brain Barrier 2! No blood-brain barrier:! 1. Part of hypothalamus! Endocrine function! 2. Posterior pituitary! Endocrine function! 3. Pineal gland! Endocrine function! 4. Choroid plexuses! Have choroid-blood barrier! See a pattern here?! 21! 7!
8 SECTION 14-3! The medulla oblongata, which is continuous with the spinal cord, contains vital centers! See Figure 14-6 for summary of functions! 22! Medulla (Oblongata)! Medulla 23! Medulla 1! 1. Ascending and descending tracts! 2. Autonomic nuclei - visceral control (part of reticular formation)! Receive inputs from cranial nerves, cortex, brain stem! A. Cardiovascular centers! Cardiac center! Vasomotor center! B. Respiratory rhythmicity center! Sets basic breathing rhythm! 24! 8!
9 Medulla 2! 3. Sensory and motor nuclei! Cranial nerves VIII (with pons), IX - XII! 4. Relay centers! A. Nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus! Somatic sensory relays to thalamus! B. Olivary nuclei! Relay proprioceptive info to cerebellum! 5. Pyramids! Decussation of the pyramids! Voluntary motor fibers cross over here! 25! Medulla Oblongata Figure 14-6! 26! SECTION 14-4! The pons contains nuclei and tracts that carry or relay sensory and motor information!! Pons = bridge!! See Figure 14-7 for summary of functions! 27! 9!
10 Pons ( Bridge )! Pons 28! Pons! 1. Ascending, descending, transverse fiber tracts! 2. Sensory and motor nuclei! Cranial nerves V, VI, VII, and VIII (with medulla)! 3. Respiration nuclei! Apneustic and pneumotaxic centers! Modify basic rhythm set by medulla! 4. Nuclei and tracts associated with cerebellum! Process and relay info to/from cerebellum! 29! Pons Figure 14-7! 30! 10!
11 SECTION 14-5! The cerebellum coordinates learned and reflexive patterns of muscular activity at the subconscious level! See Figure14-8 for summary of functions! 31! Cerebellum! Cerebellum 32! Cerebellum 1! Cerebellum = little brain! Communicates with brain stem, cerebrum, spinal cord via cerebellar peduncles! Modifies motor outputs of brain stem centers and motor pathways! Compares intended with actual movements and makes necessary adjustments! Subconscious (automatic)! Facilitates coordinated movements! Adjusts posture, muscle tone, balance! 33! 11!
12 Cerebellum 2! Receives input from:! Proprioceptors! Equilibrium sensors! Visual receptors! Touch receptors! Auditory receptors! Purkinje fibers important:! Receive up to 200,000 inputs per cell!! 34! SECTION 14-6! The mesencephalon regulates auditory and visual reflexes and controls alertness! See Figure14-9 for summary of functions! 35! Midbrain (Mesencephalon)! Tectum! Cerebral! peduncles! Midbrain! (mesencephalon)! Cerebral! aqueduct! 36! 12!
13 Midbrain (Mesencephalon)! Contains:! 1. Cerebral peduncles! 2. Cerebral aqueduct! 3. Tectum ( roof of cerebral aqueduct)! Superior colliculus! Inferior colliculus! 4. Substantia nigra + red nucleus = tegmentum! 5. Part of reticular activating system! 6. Cranial nerve nuclei (III and IV)! 37! Cerebral Peduncles and Tectum! 1. Cerebral peduncles ( little feet )! Motor and sensory fiber tracts!! 2. Tectum ( roof of aqueduct)! Corpora quadrigemina (part of tectum)! A. Superior colliculus! Visual reflexes: eye tracking, reflexive head and neck movements! B. Inferior colliculus! Auditory reflexes: reflexive head, neck, trunk movements! 38! Tegmentum! Tegmentum - anterior to aqueduct! 1. Substantia nigra ( black substance )! Regulates activity of basal nuclei! Involved in muscle tone (discussed later with basal nuclei)! 2. Red nucleus! Muscle tone, subconscious movements of arms! 3. Reticular formation of RAS! General level of arousal, muscle tone! 39! 13!
14 Midbrain Cranial Nerve Nuclei! A. Oculomotor nerve C.N. III! Eye movement, proprioception! All extrinsic eye muscles except superior oblique and lateral rectus! Lens shape (ciliary muscles)! Pupil diameter (iris)! B. Trochlear nerve ( pulley ) C.N. IV! Eye movement, proprioception! Superior oblique (extrinsic eye) muscle! 40! The Mesencephalon Figure 14-9! 41! SECTION 14-7! The diencephalon integrates sensory information with motor output at the subconscious level! Thalamus! Hypothalamus! Epithalamus! 42! 14!
15 ! Chapter 14 Part 1, Brain! Diencephalon! Thalamus Hypothalamus 43! Thalamus Inner Chamber! Major sensory relay area! Except for smell, relays all sensory signals to specific area of cortex for conscious perception! Crosses third ventricle as:! Intermediate mass = massa intermedia = interthalamic adhesion = middle commissure! Allows a crude appreciation of:! Pain, temperature, pressure! Sensation not localized to a particular area! Part of limbic system! Influences emotional states! 44! Posterior Thalamic Nuclei to Know! A. Lateral geniculate - visual relay center! Optic tract thalamus occipital lobe! B. Medial geniculate - auditory relay center! Auditory receptors thalamus temporal lobe! Table 14-2 summarizes functions of thalamic nuclei: know that they are all sensory relays/ integrators.! Know lateral and medial geniculate functions specifically.! 45! 15!
16 The Hypothalamus! Corpus callosum Fornix Thalamus Hypothalamus! Pineal! Optic chiasm! Infundibulum! (cut)! Mamillary body! 46! Hypothalamus Functions 1! 1. Subconscious control of skeletal muscles associated with emotions! E.g. facial expressions of rage, pleasure, pain! E.g. body position associated with sexual arousal! 2. Control of the autonomic nervous system! Influences centers in pons and medulla! E.g. heart rate, BP, respiration! 3. Secretion of hormones! Oxytocin! Antidiuretic hormone! Both stored in posterior pituitary! 47! Hypothalamus Functions 2! 4. Coordinates nervous and endocrine systems! Releases regulatory hormones that control release of anterior pituitary hormones! 5. Influences emotions, behavioral drives! Feeding, fighting, pleasure, thirst! 6. Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions! Think about stressful situation HR and BP before stress begins! I.e., prepares body for stress! 48! 16!
17 ! Chapter 14 Part 1, Brain! Hypothalamus Functions 3! 7. Body temperature regulation! Cold vasoconstrict, shiver, etc.! Hot vasodilate, sweat, etc.! 8. Circadian rhythms! Light retina hypothalamus pineal ( melatonin) reticular activating system activity! Figure summarizes hypothalamic functions know what s listed here in the notes.! 49! SECTION 14-8! The limbic system is a group of tracts and nuclei with various functions! 50! Limbic System Figure 14-12! 51! 17!
18 Limbic System 1! The emotional brain or motivational system! A network of structures! Deals with primitive emotions! Functions:! 1. Establishes emotional states! 2. Links conscious, intellectual functions with unconscious, autonomic functions! 3. Memory storage and retrieval! 52! Limbic System 2! Some functions of some elements of the system:! Hippocampus memory! Amygdala e.g., fight-or-flight, sexual behavior! Septal nuclei rage, fear! Mamillary bodies responses to smell! Olfactory lobes duh! Fornix connects hippocampus to hypothalamus to mamillary bodies! Thalamus, hypothalamus, reticular formation! 53! 18!
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