Phylogeny and the Tree of Life. The Science of Biology: Part IV
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1 Phylogeny and the Tree of Life The Science of Biology: Part IV 1
2 Taxonomy, Phylogeny and Systematics Taxonomy: the study of naming and classifying organisms. Phylogeny: the evolutionary history of a group or a species Based on common ancestries inferred from: Fossil records Structural and biochemical similarities Genetic evidence Systematics: Combines the studies of taxonomy and phylogeny to study biological diversity. Involves the reconstruction of phylogenetic history and Cladistics 2
3 Taxonomy Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying organisms. Uses a hierarchical system to divide organisms into categories based on characteristics. Developed by Carolus Linnaeus to group species in increasingly broad categories Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species Each level is a taxa (taxon singular) 3
4 Taxon Taxon A group of organisms in a classification system Each level is included in a larger more general level Organisms placed into a particular group are more similar to each other than they are to organisms in other groups 12/1/2012 Averett 4
5 Eight Taxa Eight different taxa (from general to specific) Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species 12/1/2012 Averett 5
6 Species Species kind in Latin Group of interbreeding organisms that do not ordinarily breed with members of other groups. Represented by both the genus name and the specific epithet Homo sapiens According to the WWF, in 2008 scientists discovered 100 new plant species, 28 fish, 18 reptiles, 14 amphibians, two mammals and one bird in the Mekong River region of Southeast Asia. Cat Ba Leopard Gecko 12/1/2012 Averett 6
7 Binomial Nomenclature Binomial nomenclature is the naming system used by all biologist around the world A standard naming system Gives each species a two part scientific name using Latin words Dead language Developed by Carolus Linnaeus (aka Karl von Linne) Includes the genus name and the specific epithet Both parts together create the species scientific name. 7
8 Example of Scientific Names Panthera pardus leopard Homo sapiens human Panthera leo African lion Panthera tigris tiger Canis familiaris dog Breed domesticated variety of an organism that is a subgroup of a species Armidillidium vulgare pill bug 8
9 Binomial Nomenclature Rules The first part of the binomial is the genus (genera) Always capitalized The second part of the binomial is the specific epithet Refers to one species within the genus Never capitalized 9
10 Binomial Nomenclature Always write both names when naming an organism If handwritten underline each name part separately if typed use italics Do not do both 12/1/2012 Averett 10
11 Binomial Nomenclature Used to eliminate confusion caused by common names Multiple informal names given to same type of organism Felis concolor puma Felis concolor cougar Felis concolor panther Felis concolor mountain lion 12/1/2012 Averett 11
12 Example of Scientific Names Examples Quercus alba Tyto alba 12/1/2012 Averett 12
13 Systematics and Phylogeny Systematics is the science of classification It includes phylogeny and cladistics Cladistics is classification based on common ancestry In general, organisms that share very similar morphological or similar DNA sequences are likely to be more closely related than organisms with vastly different structures or sequences. 13
14 Phylogenetic Trees (Cladograms) Phylogenetic trees called cladograms are made to show the hierarchical classification of taxonomic groups nested within more inclusive groups 14
15 Cladogram Cladograms are evolutionary trees that propose how species may be related to each other through common ancestors Each branch point represents the divergence of two species. deeper branch points represent progressively greater amounts of divergence 15
16 Example Cladogram 12/1/2012 Averett 16
17 Clades A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants is called a clade. A clade is a group of species that shares a common ancestor To be a valid clade, the group needs to consist of an ancestor species and all its descendants. One of these is correct, two are NOT! 17
18 Proper Clades 18
19 Cladistics Cladistics is a phylogenetic system of classification used to infer and construct cladograms based on shared and derived traits. Node: - Each place where a branch of a cladogram splits off. - Represents the most common ancestor shared by a clade. 19
20 Cladistics overlaps with taxonomy Cladistics and Taxonomy 12/1/2012 Averett 20
21 Cladogram Characteristics The term character refers to any feature that a particular taxon possesses. 2 Types: Primitive Characters: The characteristic(s) shared with common ancestor Derived Characters: characteristic that appears in recent parts of a lineage, but not in older members Traits that are shared to different degrees among species. Useful for determining evolutionary relationships among a group of species. 21
22 Through evolution, certain traits may change in some species of a clade but stay the same in other species. Therefore, in a clade each species has traits that have not changed from its ancestry but may also have traits that have changed over time. 12/1/2012 Averett 22
23 Shared and Derived Characteristics 23
24 Two groups have similar characteristics. Are they related? Where do the similar characteristics come from? Analogy Homology
25 Homology and Analogy A potential misconception in constructing a phylogeny is similarity due to convergent evolution, called analogy, rather than shared ancestry. It is important in phylogeny to sort HOMOLOGY from ANALOGY. HOMOLOGOUS structures INFER common ancestry. Home Latin root means same ANALOGOUS structures INFER convergent evolution by similar environmental pressures. alike but not from the same home 25
26 Homology Similar in basic structure and development Example: birds and bats both have bones May or may not be similar in function Indicates a close relationship and a common ancestor May end up looking different because environmental pressures are different. This would be caused by adapting to different conditions.
27 Analogy Produced by Convergent Evolution Produced by adaptation to similar conditions. Similar in function but not basic structure. Example: ability to fly birds and insects not closely related! Not similar in basic structure or development. Birds have bones, insects do not! Do not indicate a close relationship
28 Convergent Evolution Convergent evolution occurs when similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar (analogous) adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary lineages. Analogous structures or molecular sequences evolve independently 28
29 Must analyze characteristics Do they indicate relationship. Homologous? Do they indicate convergent evolution. Analogous?
30 Homology vs. Analogy Are these structures analogous or homologous? 12/1/2012 Averett 30
31 Homology and Analogy 31
32 Homology vs. Analogy Analogy: Bird and bat wings When we examine bird wings and bat wings closely, we see that there are some major differences. Bat wings consist of flaps of skin stretched between the bones of the fingers and arm. Bird wings consist of feathers extending all along the arm. These structural dissimilarities suggest that bird wings and bat wings were not inherited from a common ancestor with wings. 12/1/2012 Averett 32
33 Domain Characteristics 3 Domains 12/1/2012 Averett 33
34 Domains Bacteria and Domain Bacteria Includes Kingdom Eubacteria Archaea Domain Archaea Contains Kingdom Archaebacteria 12/1/2012 Averett 34
35 Domains Bacteria and Archaea Domains Bacteria and Arachaea Prokaryotic No nucleus Have nucleoid region DNA molecules usually circular No protein associated with DNA No membrane-bound organelles Three general shapes Three general modes of movement 12/1/2012 Averett 35
36 Domains Bacteria and Archaea 12/1/2012 Averett 36
37 Prokaryotic Shapes Bacillus (pl. bacilli) rod-shaped Coccus (pl. cocci) spherical Spirillum (pl. spirilla)
38 Prokaryotic Movement Spiraling Flagella (sg. Flagellum) Gliding
39 Domain Eukarya Eukaryotes Contains only eukaryotes Have nucleus Have membrane bound organelles Contains 4 kingdoms Kingdom Protista Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia 12/1/2012 Averett 39
40
41 Kingdom Characteristics Eu bacteria 12/1/2012 Averett 41
42 Kingdom Characteristics 12/1/2012 Averett 42
43 Kingdom Eubacteria Kingdom Eubacteria Prokaryotes Unicellular Cell walls contain peptidoglycan Autotroph or heterotroph Photoautotrophic or chemoautotrophic Saprophytic feed on dead substances Parasitic obtain nutrients from living organisms 12/1/2012 Averett 43
44 Kingdom Archaebacteria Kingdom Archaebacteria Prokaryotes Unicellular Cell walls do not contain peptidoglycan Autotroph or heterotroph Photoautotrophic or chemoautotrophic Saprophytic feed on dead substances Parasitic obtain nutrients from living organisms Live in extreme environments 12/1/2012 Averett 44
45 Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Fungi Eukaryotic Cell walls contain chitin Unicellular or Multicellular Heterotrophs Saprophytic or parasitic Nonmotile Yeast, mushrooms, mold Reproduce by forming spores 12/1/2012 Averett 45
46 Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Plantae Eukaryotic Cell walls with cellulose Always multicellular Photoautotrophs Contain chloroplasts Specialized tissues Nonmotile 12/1/2012 Averett 46
47 Kingdom Animalia Kingdom Animalia Eukaryotic No cell walls Always Multicellular Heterotrophs Can move at some point in life cycle 12/1/2012 Averett 47
48 Kingdom Protista Kingdom Protista Eukaryotes Fungus-like Ex: slime molds Plant-like Ex: algae, diatoms Animal-like Ex: protozoa Unicellular, Multicellular or colonial Photoautotroph or heterotroph May have cell walls with cellulose May have chloroplasts 12/1/2012 Averett 48
49 Kingdom Protista In kingdom Protista not because of what they have but because of what they don t have!!! They do not fit in any of the other eukaryotic kingdoms (Junk Drawer) Fungus-like can move at some time True fungi cannot move Plant-like have cell walls and chloroplasts but no specialized tissues True plants have tissues Animal-like can move but are single celled True animals are multicellullar 12/1/2012 Averett 49
50 Dichotomous Keys Dichotomous keys are tools used by scientists to help identify already discovered organisms or items Two part key Each step requires you to choose between two choices. Eventually leads you to the correct scientific name of an organism 12/1/2012 Averett 50
51 Dichotomous Key 1. Sex female---2 Sex male Hair color red---sally Hair color not red Hair color blonde---julie Hair color black Glasses worn---deanna Glasses not worn---leslie 5. Shoes high-top sneakers---joseph Shoes not high-tops Hair color blonde--michael Hair color brown--david What is the name of the male student with brown hair wearing cowboy boots? Imagine that you meet a blonde male member of this class wearing teva sandals. Who is it? Imagine that his girl friend has black hair but doesn't wear glasses. Who is he dating? 12/1/2012 Averett 51
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