Introduction to Linguistics

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1 Introduction to Linguistics Sentences may be related in various ways. The boat sailed up the river. A girl laughed at the monkey. Same phrase structure, different words. Syntax IV Linguistics 288b 2 The boy saw [the man with the telescope]. The boy saw [the man] [with the telescope]. Same words, same order, different structures. Two sentences may differ in structure (with small changes in words), but with no difference in meaning. Ernie hired Bert. Bert was hired by Ernie. Linguistics 288b 3 Linguistics 288b 4 Or two sentences may have structural differences that correspond systematically with differences in meaning. The cat is sleeping. Is the cat sleeping? The can can sleep. Can the cat sleep? Alice talked to the white rabbit. Who did Alice talk to? Alice slept under the tree. Where did Alice sleep? Linguistics 288b 5 Linguistics 288b 6 1

2 We need some way to account for similarities in meaning in active and passive pairs - hire vs. was hired. We need some way to account for the differences between statements and questions. The basic sentences of a language are derived by phrase structure rules. These are called deep structures. We never pronounce deep structures. Variants on those basic sentence structures are derived via transformations. Linguistics 288b 7 Linguistics 288b 8 The sentences we actually speak are called surface structures. If no transformations apply, the deep and surface structures will be identical. We will see something similar in phonology. Transformations move constituents in a sentence. In yes-no questions, an auxiliary verb (be, have, will, may, etc.) moves to the front of the sentence. This is also called subject-aux inversion. Where does the auxiliary move? Linguistics 288b 9 Linguistics 288b 10 Embedded clauses John said SENTENCE that Mary has left. OBJECT of say COMPLEMENT of COMPLEMENT CLAUSE See textbook (pp ) Linguistics 288b 11 -structure John said that Mary has left B COMPLEMENTIZER that Mar 18, 2002 has Mary left 2

3 Has John has t(race) Where does move to in Yes/no questions? left? Linguistics 288b 13 Specifier of What goes in Spec,? is the question domain. Yes/No Question: property in wh-question: property in Spec, Triggers X movement Triggers XPmovement Linguistics 288b 14 will What John will t eat wh-movement: in Spec, XP moves to Spec, t the what cake Linguistics 288b 15? Q-properties Subject questions and embedded questions do not have in John asked what Mary will eat t wh Not: *John asked what will Mary t eat t wh John wondered whether Mary can swim. Not: *John wondered whether can Mary t swim Linguistics 288b 16 Who t who John will eat subject questions: no -to- movement the cake Linguistics 288b 17? Yes-no transformation If no auxiliary is present, do-insertion occurs: Did the cat sleep? do is inserted in I; it then acts like a regular auxiliary. Draw the tree for this question (there is movement!). Linguistics 288b 18 3

4 Passive Passive moves an XP, not X The direct object moves into the subject position. The derivation for Bert was hired is: was passive: moves to Spec, Bert hired t Bert Linguistics 288b 19 Linguistics 288b 20 Summary Four transformations 1. Yes-no questions 2. Wh-questions 3. Do-insertion 4. Passive 1. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. 1. The very young child walked to the store. 2. Sandy likes tricky problems. 3. A man with a hat climbed down the chimney. 4. The police might plant drugs in the apartment. 5. Her doctor warned Jesse about the dangers of too much alcohol. Linguistics 288b 21 Linguistics 288b Hixkaryana. Look carefully at the following data from a Carib language spoken in Brazil: a. Kuraha yonyhoryeno bˆyekomo. bow made boy The boy made a bow. b. Newehyatxhe worˆskomo komo take-bath women all All the women took a bath. c. Toto heno komo yonoye kamara. person dead all ate jaguar. The jaguar ate all the dead people. Draw the trees for (a) and (c). Linguistics 288b 23 Linguistics 288b 24 4

5 3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. Be sure to indicate any movement. 1. Will the cat meow? 2. Does the cat like fish? 3. The cat was fed a fish. 4. Was the cat fed a fish? 5. What was the cat fed? Linguistics 288b 25 5

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