Topography and Bathymetry of Earth

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1 Topography and Bathymetry of Earth m

2 continent ocean contrasts Continents: very complex crustal deformations and mantle interactions Sub-ocean: entirely created since 200 Ma by seafloor spreading m

3 Continental mountain ranges and plateaus developed by Cenozoic diffuse plate boundary processes m

4 Continental mountain ranges and plateaus developed by Cenozoic diffuse plate boundary processes m

5 continent ocean contrasts Erosion and lateral transport of rock dominant Sedimentation dominant m

6 water, water everywhere.

7 The three end-member climaticgeomorphic regimes determined by the role of water Frozen water: glaciers & ice sheets Liquid water: groundwater/fluvial networks Very little water: deserts

8 Fluvial and glacial-fluvial networks: - The primary engines of erosion and transport of rock - The pervasive and outstanding terrestrial landform

9 Flux of rock mass: three basic components of a large fluvial basin A. Up stream net loss: erosion B. Down stream transport: no net loss or gain C. End stream net gain: deposition

10 South American Andes Andes Pacific Plate Peru-Chile subduction zone Nazca Plate Andes Central Andean Plateau South m American Plate Andes Antarctic Plate

11 Amazon drainage basin

12 Amazon headwater basin: erosion Beni R. Lake Titicaca

13 Amazon tributaries: transport Madeira R.

14 Amazon River: transport

15 Amazon delta: deposition

16 Amazon drainage basin Beni Basin

17 Elevation, meters

18 Elevation, meters Beni R. basin

19 South American Plate Nazca Plate 8 cm/yr

20 Subduction of Nazca plate beneath western South America Andes Mountains Peru-Chile Trench East Pacific Rise thickened crust Subducted Nazca plate

21 Altiplano cross-section South America Plate Shown schematically in next slide

22 Two phase model for Altiplano development West East monoclinal structure The subduction zone and subducted plate are on this side, but are not shown. major fold-thrust system on the eastern flanks of the Andes

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25 Focused, high erosion on one side may produce a highly asymmetric tectonic response Steep regional slope and high precipitation produce very high erosion rates: 1-5 mm/yr

26 Precipitation

27 orographically enhanced precipitation

28 Orographic concentration of precipitation produces very high erosion rates rainfall at lower elevations snow at higher elevations glaciers and icefields at highest elevations snow & ice rain

29 Photo from Shuttle Peru Lake Titicaca Eastern side of Andean plateau Bolivia North Chile

30 Photo from Shuttle

31 Photo taken Shuttle Landsat Thematic Mapper Image

32 Landsat Thematic Mapper Aug 2, 1987 Eastern Cordillera Lake Titicaca La Paz

33 Landsat Thematic Mapper Aug 2, 1987

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41 Simplified section Topographic swath profile section

42 Beni drainage basin V-shaped valleys, landsliding hillslopes, rivers incising bedrock

43 Central Range, Taiwan The Central Cross-Island Highway travels up the Liwu Chi, through Taroko gorge. The gorge has formed where the Liwu Chi cuts through competent marbles and gneisses. Bright, clean rock surface indicates the water depth during passage of typhoon Herb (1996). Car for scale.

44 Central Range, Taiwan Large landslide in the headwaters of the Liwu Chi. Such high-magnitude, low-frequency landslides dominate the sediment supply to the rivers draining the Taiwan mountains. Removal of landslide debris is accomplished mainly by major storms

45 Back to Bolivia section

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47 Tectonics vrs erosion: end member cases Stress limited uplift Crust crustal thickeness and average elevation limited by balance between horizontal and vertical stresses erosional outflow Tectonic inflow Arid climate: transport limited, low erosion rates steady state mountain belt: tectonic inflow = erosional outflow erosional outflow Crust Crustal thickness and average elevation limited by erosion rate Tectonic inflow Wet climate: weathering limited, high erosion rates

48 Mountain belt erosion machines Alps Himalayas (2-7) erosion rate mm/yr Taiwan Central Range (5-10) New Guinea Highlands New Zealand Southern Alps (5-10) SE Alaska- BC Northern Andes Eastern Andes (1-5) Patagonian Andes Precipitation-relief index of erosion, computed as product of mean annual precipitation in millimeters/year and relief within ~100 km 2 windows in meters. Values range from zero (blue) to about 13500, with values above 2000 in red.

49 dominant erosional process glacial glacio-fluvial fluvial Alps Himalayas Taiwan Central Range New Guinea Highlands SE Alaska- BC Northern Andes Eastern Andes New Zealand Southern Alps Patagonian Andes Precipitation-relief index of erosion, computed as product of mean annual precipitation in millimeters/year and relief within ~100 km 2 windows in meters. Values range from zero (blue) to about 13500, with values above 2000 in red.

50 photo from Shuttle

51 photo from Shuttle Lake Titicaca La Paz Arica Great western Escarpment Cuzco Salar de Uyuni

52 Cross-sectional view across Northern Chile-Bolivia Great Western Escarpment South America Plate Altiplano Eastern Cordillera Sub-andean foreland foldthrust belt

53 Stable, undeformed crust flexure of upper crust plateau uplift upper crust Mantle Shortened and thickened ductile lower crust

54 top-down erosional system major atmospheric moisture fluxes Atacama hyperarid desert Drainage systems driven by orographic precip: side-cutting erosional system westerlies

55 top-down erosional system top-down erosional system Canyon systems Atacama hyperarid desert Drainage systems driven by orographic precip: side-cutting erosional system

56 Southern Peru incised stream profile Northern Chile groundwater Atacama groundwater

57 Groundwater sapping networks River networks formed by subsurface flow piercing the surface and undermining overlying material.

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62 3-D Perspectiv e view

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64 ASTER 321

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66 Amphitheater headwalls

67 Amphitheater headwalls

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