UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC. Economics and Management

Transcription

1 UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC Economics and Management 2013

2 UNIVERSITY OF DEFENCE / CZECH REPUBLIC ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT Economics and Management - p Brno 31 August 2013 Published by University of Defence in Brno

3 ISSN

4 EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR IN CHIEF Pavel FOLTIN Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic EDITORIAL BOARD Ladislav ANDRASIK Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovak Republic Ghita BARSAN Nicolae Balcescu Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania Vasile CARUTASU Nicolae Balcescu Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania Miroslav CEMPIREK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Marijana CINGULU Faculty of Economics & Business, University of Zagreb, Chorvatsko Petr CECH Institute of Hospitality Management, Prague, Czech Republic Monika GRASSEOVA Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Frantisek HANZLIK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Hubert HRDLICKA Language Training Centre, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Josef KALAS Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Ales KOMAR Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Miroslav KRC Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Oto KUBIK Academy STING Private College, Brno, Czech Republic Marek KULCZYCKI The Tadeusz Kosciuszko Land Forces Military Academy, Poland Stefan KURINIA National Defence University, Warszaw, Poland

5 Ivan MALY Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic Ivan MRAZ General Staff, Prague, Czech Republic Arpad POHL Faculty of Military Science and Officer s Training, National University of Public Service, Budapest, Hungary Ladislav POTUZAK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Milan SOPOCI Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Liptovský Mikuláš, Slovak Republic Oleg STANEK The University of Quebec at Rimouski, Canada Jiri URBANEK Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Cezar VASILESCU Regional Department of Defense Resources Management Studies (DRESMARA), Brasov, Romania Jaroslav ZELENY Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Iva ZIVELOVA Faculty of Business and Economics, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry in Brno, Czech Republic EXECUTIVE EDITOR Vitezslav JAROS Faculty of Economics and Management, University of Defence, Brno Czech Republic Copyright 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of University of Defence in Brno University Press.

6 C O N T E N T S Jiří ČERNÝ POSSIBLE FACTORS INFLUENCING TACTICS DEVELOPMENT IN THE ARMY OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC p. 7 Jan DROZD IMPLEMENTATION POSSIBILITIES OF THE MILITARY OBSERVER TRAINING TO THE TRAINING SYSTEM FOR PEACETIME MILITARY ENGAGEMENT AND PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS... p. 14 Monika GRASSEOVÁ and Eva ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ DECISION PROBLEMS SOLVING IN THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC... p. 21 József GYARMATI and Peter ZENTAY COMPARING MILITARY TECHNOLOGY DEVICES WITH MULTI- CRITERIA DECISION MAKING AND SOLVING GROUP DECISION PROBLEMS..... p. 30 Petr HAJNA, Vladimír HALENKA and Vladislav VINCENEC ENSURING OF COMPETETIVE ADVANTAGE IN THE MARKETPLACE THROUGH LOGISTICS... p. 37 Aleš KOMÁR, Miroslav CEMPÍREK and Vladislav VINCENEC PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN THE MILITARY OPERATIONS... p. 46 Petr KŘÍŽEK, Karel FILIP, Zbyšek KORECKI, Jaromír MAREŠ and Radka LOPOUROVÁ COST EVALUATION OF THE OPERATION OF MILITARY GROUND EQUIPMENT... p. 51 Milota KUSTROVÁ MILITARY TRAINING AREAS - PLACES WITH HIGH NATURE CONSERVATION VALUE p. 59 Miroslav MAREŠ SECURITY CULTURE IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC... p. 67 Jan MAZAL, Miroslav MAŠLEJ, Petr STODOLA and Ivana MOKRÁ MODELING APPROACH TO THE SPECIFIC TACTICAL ACTIVITIES p. 76 Jan NOHEL COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION ON THE ENEMY S SITUATION AS PART OF THE COMMON OPERATIONAL PICTURE... p. 87 5

7 Pavel OTŘÍSAL SOME BASIC APPROACHES TO THE NEW CONCEPT OF CBRN DEFENCE IN THE CZECH ARMED FORCES... p. 98 Miroslav PECINA and Roman DUFEK LOGISTICS INFORMATION SUPPORT IN NATO-LED OPERATIONS.. p. 105 Árpád POHL SOME SPECIFIC FEATURES IN THE LOGISTIC SYSTEM OF ISAF REGIONAL COMMAND NORTH... p. 112 Ján SPIŠÁK MILITARY CONCEPTS A BACKGROUND FOR FUTURE CAPABILITIES DEVELOPMENT... p. 119 Martin ŠKVAŘIL APPLICATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE HOST NATION SUPPORT PLANNING AND PROVIDING PRINCIPLES... p. 126 Martin VLKOVSKÝ, Tomáš BINAR, Martin REJZEK and Radim UŠEL THE OPTIMISATION OF LONG-TERM STORAGE OF SELECTED MILITARY TRANSPORT VEHICLE TYPES IN THE CZECH ARMED FORCES CONDITIONS.... p. 134 Radim ZAHRADNÍČEK and Zdeněk SKALIČAN SOME ASPECTS OF CREATION OF TASK FORCES FROM A PERSPECTIVE OF THE CZECH ARMY CHEMICAL CORPS p. 142 The Authors Bibliographies:... p. 151 The Reviewers Bibliographies:... p. 155 The language revision has not been made. The authors are responsible for the papers content. 6

8 POSSIBLE FACTORS INFLUENCING TACTICS DEVELOPMENT IN THE ARMY OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC Jiří Černý Abstract: Contemporary period of time in the Army of the Czech Republic (ACR) can be (apart from omnipresent uncertainty concerning future development connected with financial restrictions) characterised by discussions on future design of organizational structures of the ACR; i.e. expected reorganization which should have an impact on all levels of the ACR. Questions concerning sustaining (increasing or decreasing) current and declared operational abilities of units and brigades are connected with the process of possible changes in the organization of the army. Searching for new approaches and ways in the process of creating a new ACR should also be closely connected with further development and elaboration of the theory of military art. In this article the author tries to point out some factors that are related to the development of tactics and influence the process of creating the ACR organizational structures. Keywords: command and control, operating environment factors, tactic 1 The importance of analyses and experience When searching for further development of ground forces tactics that would enable accomplishing combat (operational) tasks in future warfare and operations, the best way appears to be making use of analyses, experience and characteristics of current warfare (operations) and predicting future warfare (operations). Based on existing knowledge of tactics and the art of operation based on the knowledge of effects of present-day and perspective technologies and military equipment, the character of future battlefield, and possible ways of conducting combat activities, it is necessary (when working with analyses) to determine future character of warfare and operations as accurately as possible in order to adjust training of commanders, staffs and troops in specific fields. Let me add my personal statement in the ACR there is no self-contained effective system or practical use of experience and analyses results. The Department of Doctrines, Military Academy, Vyskov deals with the problem of knowledge acquisition and Lessons Learned. In my opinion I am convinced that the job they do is brilliant and contributing. They issue documents, materials and information which can help the military staff to be well informed in the issue of contemporary military science development. Unfortunately I have a feeling that not all units of the ACR (mainly I mean these norms creators ) are efficiently involved in this process. I also mean that acquired knowledge results are used to develop the theory of tactics and the ACR as a whole. Even from this point of view it is apparent that it seems impossible to develop the tactics itself. Based on analyses, experience, and new pieces of knowledge the doctrinal system should be developed. Many military doctrines and publications describe only generalities concerning individual types of operations, tactical activities, experience and translations of allied doctrines and publications (they look like generalities in NATO 7

9 Doctrines ATP, AJP...). Thanks to deployment of our units in allied operations I believe there is enough information, experience and new pieces of knowledge. In my opinion the problem is in the fact that (apart from processors, some commanders and some members of the academic community) nobody reads nor evaluates these documents (I am talking especially about those people who are responsible for creating directives and doctrines). At the same time I believe that the basic goal in this process i.e. lessons learned based on previous experience aim of which is to improve future activities is not met. It naturally gives the impression that a lot of problems occur again and again. Practice proves that it is mainly commanders (commanding authorities) at tactical levels who use and implement lessons learned in the training in the form of various drill exercises within their units. The reason of that is clear their point is to accomplish their tasks in future operations, their point is to protect their lives as well as lives of their soldiers. Unfortunately, these commanders do not have time to analyse the lessons learned, incorporate them into directives (publications) and, consequently, issue this material for the military public. I dare to say that this all was and still is happening without respecting mutual connections. I believe that conclusions based on documents (analyses) elaborated by commanders of individual task forces after having finished their operational tasks and current view of military professionals on theory of tactics development could be used in the form of service periodicals (see Military Professional magazine which was popular in the past) issued by the General Staff (GS) of the ACR. Such periodical could be used by units and formations at tactical levels. In this respect I highly appreciate the effort of the Doctrines magazine editorial board which keeps trying to inform military public on new experience at tactical levels in the form of non-reviewed articles. 2 Creation of doctrines and directives Based on the facts in Chapter 1 I am convinced that if there is a reorganization in the ACR it will be the right time to officially abolish the Field Code (Všeob-Ř-1) and Combat Directives (Vševojsk-1-1, 2, 3, ) in order to create new codes, directives, doctrines, or manuals which will be mandatory for given time and will not be a subject of debates questioning validity of these materials. These materials will be used within the teaching-learning process at the University of Defence. These materials will also be studied by commanders, staffs and troops within their units and formations. Current time is, unfortunately, characteristic of the fact that in the field of tactics (it also applies to the area of command and control) the commanders must follow mandatory directives and codes. Each commander demands this in order to be legally protected. Although doctrines (Ground Forces in Operations Pub and Tactics of Ground Forces Pub ) were published in 2011, when simply comparing the contents it is obvious that the Field Code and Combat Directives differ from the doctrines in the content and the terminology and at some points they are contradictory. 3 Influence of equipment and technologies on tactics development Contemporary state of tactics is a result of a long-term process, development of which was significantly influenced by the number and quality of equipment (weaponry and technologies). Tactics is significantly influenced by equipment. Based on previous experience, when introducing new equipment in the armed forces, it appears to be necessary to delimit and define its influence on cooperation of already used and introduced systems (see influence of introducing a new wheeled armoured personnel carrier PANDUR on tactics and command of small units). Things should not go the way that in the process of introducing new equipment the unit commanders, in a long time 8

10 horizon, create various tactical combinations right on the spot in the terrain. Now I am driving at non-existence of regulations concerning tactics of units equipped with wheeled armoured personnel carriers. In previous war conflicts, commanders and tacticians were grounded on their own combat experience. In current and future operations they have to be flexible because the equipment is being continually developed. Future wars will be of dynamic character because modernized equipment as well as various integrated communication, reconnaissance and weapon systems will be used. The military will make use of air and space reconnaissance, unmanned aircraft, means of electronic warfare this all will change the play of forces as well as units configuration at the battlefield. The fact is, however, that choosing the best tactics, even when the equipment is being developed so fast, is the best way to achieve success in operations (combat). Experience gained in both previous and current operations has shown that even units equipped with not very modern equipment can, on certain conditions, successfully fight modern trained and equipped enemy forces. 4 Influence of command and control system factor on theory of tactics development The system of command and control is an important factor influencing the theory of tactics and the character of future conflicts. In order to get some concrete conclusions necessary to improve the command and control system, we shall have a look at predicated activities of future armies. Manoeuvre is the ground of tactics. Its purpose is to move the units either towards the enemy (offensive activities) or from the enemy (defensive activities). The units movement on the battlefield is carried out as a reaction to the enemy s activities. The manoeuvres will be carried out not only by combat tactical units but also by combat support and logistic units. To support the combat units manoeuvres, the enemy will be put under fire both from the air and land. These activities must be coordinated all the time not only by the ACR commanders at tactical levels but also by commanders within allied coalition forces. Tactical units carrying out the manoeuvre as well as support units should be actively protected from the enemy s airstrikes. Enemy forces can paralyse combat activities of the whole tactical task forces by incapacitating not only their fire support systems but also their logistic units. No combat is possible without logistic support. Having said all that it is apparent that there can be no delay in the command and control system development. Nowadays the ACR has at its disposal only limited forces equipped with conventional weaponry. That is why I believe it is important to highlight the role of a man (a military professional) in our army, especially his erudition. Although commanders and staffs at tactical levels are creative and flexible, I am convinced they have to deal with many difficulties. These difficulties concern the knowledge of general tactics theory as well as the command and control process especially within the process of combat planning and control. It is surprising that although during the past ten years tremendous amount of financial sources was spent on implementation and possible use of operational-tactical command and control system of ground forces, staffs at tactical levels do not use it and, what more, do not know its potential. For task forces staffs it is not an easy task to deal with several sorts of activities and pick up the one that appears to be the best and will be accepted as a commander s decision. Combat documentation processing, calculations, and analyses are very time consuming, too. There can be more difficulties, causes of which do not have to be necessarily grounded in units or staffs organizational structures. When dealing with the problem of command and, above all, the command and control system itself, it is necessary to take 9

11 into account the fact that the deployment within coalition forces will affect the tactics development, operational art and, inevitably, individual elements of the command and control system. Dealing with the issue of efficient functioning of the command and control system is closely related to dealing with communication systems. These play an unsubstitutable role and can be dealt with via introducing modern and, above all, NATO compatible communication and information systems and devices. The requirement for the future is that tactical units have to be equipped with such a communication system that will provide connection at all times - even when some of its elements are eliminated as a result of electronic warfare conducted by the enemy. Another aspect that is related to the issue of the command and control system is the perspective of organizational structures of the ACR. The command and control system is grounded in organizational structures. I am convinced that current brigade structures of the ground forces are not very ideal for the future development of the ACR and should be changed. Some proposals and considerations concerning battalion and brigade organizational structure modifications are spreading around units at tactical levels. I do not know yet what the result will be in force. However, I am an optimist. I believe that all measures and changes that are to be taken will meet the targets i.e. they will save costs in the horizon of a few oncoming years and, above all, create effective units at tactical levels that will be interoperable and compatible with similar units of our allies. In order to create such units it is necessary to integrate current and future operations (combat) characteristics analyses into the whole organizational structure of the ACR, i.e. not only into deployable and partially deployable elements but also into stationary elements. I assume that if we are able to implement the idea of creating combined brigades, good conditions for establishment of small task units will be created. These small task units would meet current and future ambitions of the ACR. At the same time it would be possible to make use of growing significance of flexibility in decision making processes and modulability (assemblability, connectivity) of organizational structures of army branches and force branches. This significance is caused by unpredictability of current and future operating environment, operational tasks and character of both activities and targets of potential enemy. My opinion is that if army branches are isolated during the peace time it will be extremely difficult to make them work efficiently within close cooperation in operations. I am also convinced that it is necessary to establish operational headquarters for ground forces (at division level). This headquarters would be designed not only to train task forces for operations but it could also be fully deployable within NATO (EU) allied forces operations. Now the tactics development and the art of operation could be more efficiently developed as fields of study, which would also be a significant feature in the view of future ACR commanders and strategists personalities development. 5 Military-political factors When creating and developing the theory of tactics it is not possible to ignore militarypolitical factors. The need of having continuously verified and drafted tactics development should be grounded in risks evaluation as well as in evaluation of threats to our state. Analyses concerning these problems should be reflected in the declaration of military-political ambitions and in establishing of long-term bases to plan abilities. Another factor influencing the theory of tactics development should be evaluation considering the way the roles and functions of earmarked forces and sources are accomplished, or in other words, if conditions enabling this accomplishment have been created. The stated point of view offers a question if the project of brigade and battalion task forces is still alive and if earmarked units (see document called Inspection of Forces an outline of individual possible task forces to meet military-political 10

12 ambitions of the Czech Republic) have, in current situation, all necessary theoretical bases. Along the stated question there is a doubt that tactics is not being developed within individual task forces and their elements. I assume that Field Order as well as Combat Directives together with Military Doctrine called Tactics of Land Forces in Operations do not play this role and do not determine generally valid tactical principles and ways of use of task forces in operations (armed conflicts). Should this project be alive I ask a question why operational concept for the brigade and battalion task forces has not been worked out yet. This would be a concept showing the way the future armed conflicts will look like and specifying supposed operating environment of the conflict. This would also be a concept that would specify the use of resources (intelligence, reconnaissance, sapper devices, logistics, integration of land and air forces, cooperation with Special Forces ). The concept should explain the reason of participation in allied operations. Consequently, concepts for formations and units should be issued. In this context I would like to mention current and future role of light mounted infantry battalions at armoured brigades. The thing I miss is a directives (doctrine) specifying deployment of these battalions in operations. When I talk to the members of the brigades (as well as the members of the stated battalions) and discuss their possible deployment in operations I come to the conclusion that existing directives included in standard operating procedures (SOP) have not been made by professionals. When compared with similar NATO units, the names of the battalions themselves are vague to me. That is why I tend to support the idea of creating infantry battalions that would accomplish standard tasks. The problems of terminology in the ACR are related to this issue, too. The reason why the terminology is so significant is that it works as a communication tool in tactical professional communication (as well as in communications of all army branches). I do not want to name individually various national military terminology dictionaries, NATO Glossary of Military Terms and Definitions accepting STANAG (3680) to AAP-6, Czech military encyclopaedias (The Department of Doctrines, Military Academy) published in the last few years but considering my experience concerning the use of terminology by military staff in the field of tactics I am convinced that there has been success in gradual unification of terminology support. However, I have to say that I miss directives regulations because NATO Glossary of Military Terms and Definitions (AAP-6) cannot react to national particularities in the use of terminology in the ACR. What more, after every operation every year there appear a lot of new and tactical expressions that should deserve our attention. That is why I would like the Czech military encyclopaedia to be issued as an official terminology dictionary of the ACR every year; to update it every year and have it distributed to units and formations. 6 Operating environment factors The theory of tactics development is related to geopolitical factors; i.e. the environment of future deployment of the ACR forces and equipment. So called ability to be deployed in the whole spectrum of operations is based on understanding that in order to accomplish operational (combat) tasks in future operations the commanders will have to combine collateral offensive, defensive, stabilization, and support (other) tactical activities. These activities will be carried out by individual elements of task forces that will change one type of activity for another one; possibly carry out some activities simultaneously. This will always depend on operational topic; i.e. which activities will prevail and be dependant on the phase of operation. As experience and analyses of last operations show, there is a growing significance of elaboration of the theory of tactics, rules and tactics concerning fighting in built-up 11

13 areas and city agglomerations. In operations conducted by the USA and NATO in Iraq and Afghanistan and by Israeli units in Palestine and Lebanon a lot of experience as well as questions appeared. The operations showed that it is necessary to use heavily armoured vehicles (tanks, ACPs) because there is simply no other way to fight a well trained and equipped enemy in built-up areas. An armoured bulldozer, task of which is to pull/knock down walls and buildings, clear and make passageways in ruins and barricades made by the enemy, turned out to be the most efficient of all armoured vehicles in fighting in built-up areas. Current valid directives and doctrines in the ACR recommend to by-pass built-up areas when fighting a regular enemy. However, due to the fact that big cities are built mainly in valleys (surrounded by mountains), there is usually either no place to manoeuvre (by-pass) or the manoeuvre is very limited. Operations conducted against irregular adversary will be referred to as combat operations. The adversary will try to eliminate our technological advantages and get us involved in a combat activity in a built-up area, where technology loses its efficiency. Military units will have to carry out their activities at ground level as well as above and bellow this level (roofs, upper floors of buildings, subways, sewerages, cellars). The combat activities will also require new equipment. Built-up areas include dense network if infrastructure represented by streets, buried services (gas pipes, electric wires, water pipes.). Latest experience says that in towns it is difficult to distinguish the adversary from civilian population. Attitude of civilian population towards our forces is also important. The above mentioned factors, when compared to current situation within the theory of tactics development (in relation to organizational structures and equipment the units and formations have disposal of), underline the fact that the ACR is neither prepared nor being properly trained for combat in built-up areas. Tactics in future conflicts and individual operations will change. It will have to be able to react to changes in operating environment. That is why I put emphasis on collecting and analysing information and knowledge coming from particular types of conflicts and operations and applying the information and knowledge in the training system of commanders, staffs and units. An evaluation published in Military Strategy in 2011 states that probability that the Czech Republic would be attacked by a massive military assault is very low. However I am convinced that the theory of tactics development should deal with individual tactical activities conducted on the Czech Republic territory. Hypothetically speculating about possible combat activity on the Czech Republic territory including movements, then, above all, character of border areas should be respected. Border mountains, living density, woods and forests, objects, built-up areas, valleys, number of communications should be other important factors taken into account in the process of tactics development. It should also be a reason to elaborate tactical principles for the use of the ACR task forces. From this point of view I assume that delaying operations and defence will be the most preferred activities in future. Delaying operations should be conducted in order to delay the enemy, wear him down, cause casualties and thus to get time for political negotiations and gradual transmission to active offensive activities. Defensive activities conducted by task forces can be carried out in order to fiercely defend important areas and objects. 7 Conclusion The truth is that in the ACR the tactics development was focused on elaborating the issue of conducting stabilization tactical activities in stabilization operations. The military units approached the University of Defence with request to develop the process of teaching tactics in the field of tactical activities and drills of small units rather than in 12

14 the field of deep understanding of tactics as a whole. Training of individuals and units was directed towards their use in non-combat operations. For various reasons (especially due to the impact of lack of finances in the Army of the Czech Republic) the number of brigade and battalion exercises focused on the issues of planning, controlling, training offensive, defensive and other tactical activities in terrain using vehicles including support and combat support units rapidly decreased in the last ten or fifteen years. I assume this is the reason why there is less theoretical knowledge in the field of tactics and why development of tactics (as a part of military art) stagnates. Now it is the right time to find an answer to a question: What is going to be next in the field of tactics development when the coalition forces have left Iraq and are going to leave Afghanistan? Another question to be answered is What is the role of the University of Defence (UoD) in the issue of theory of tactics development (as a field of study)? I assume that nowadays, under current conditions, the ability of the UoD to develop (scientifically) the theory of tactics is limited. There are several reasons. Some of them result from the fact that practice in the ACR is ahead of theory. Another reason is that the theory of using the units in operations is approached tendentiously, ad hoc. Some of the other reasons are related to the functioning of the inner system at the UoD but I see the main reason in the missing career structure which has not been introduced yet. References [1] ALLARD, K. Command, Control, and the Common Defence. Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication data. Yale University Press p. ISBN [2] Bílá kniha o obraně. Praha: Ministerstvo obrany ČR. Praha: ISBN s. [In Czech]. [3] CORDESMAN, A.H. Strategy, Tactics and Military Lessons. Centre for Strategic and International Studies. The CSIS Pres. Washington, D.C p. ISSN ISBN [4] Obranná strategie ČR. Praha: Ministerstvo obrany ČR. Praha: s. ISBN [In Czech]. [5] Pozemní síly v operacích [Vojenská publikace]. Vyškov: Institut doktrín VeV-VA, s. [In Czech]. [6] Taktika pozemních sil [Vojenská publikace]. Vyškov: Institut doktrín VeV VA, s. [In Czech]. 13

15 IMPLEMENTATION POSSIBILITIES OF THE MILITARY OBSERVER TRAINING TO THE TRAINING SYSTEM FOR PEACETIME MILITARY ENGAGEMENT AND PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS Jan Drozd Abstract: The article deals with the possibilities of the military observer training system implementation to our preparation system for Peacetime Military Engagement (PME) and Peace Support Operations (PSO). The purpose of the article is to open discussion and consider the possibilities of applying training objectives and topics taken from the efficient United Nation (UN) military observer training system. It also stresses out main objectives useful for implementation to combat operation and counter-insurgency operation as well. The article indicates basic classification of the military operations as well as description of the UN above mentioned system. Keywords: Training, Military observer, Peace support operations, Peacetime military engagement 1 Introduction We have a year 2013 and participation of our forces in operation ISAF is gradually reaching end. In accordance with government proposal for prospectively 2015 participation of the Czech soldier in foreign operation will change its character. Forces will mainly focus on training of the local army and police. Czech government approved participation of 539 members of the Czech army in mission ISAF in 2013 and 340 soldiers in In 2015 we can speak about 150 soldiers who are going to trading Afghan armed forces. Step by step all the responsibilities for safe environment in Afghanistan is handing over to Afghan armed forces and in 2015 the Afghan forces is going to be fully responsible for overall safety in Afghanistan. Based on the Chief of staff Czech armed forces are ready to participate more within the European Union peace mission. As a first step towards this course of action we can name our participation in EU mission EUTM in Mali. In a mean time European Union is going to prepare EUROPIAN UNION SECURITY AND DEFENCE WHITE PAPER. Based on the already published proposal of this document the EU is going to reinforce EU participation on peacekeeping mission. This type of mission is mainly belonging to United Nation lead. Peacekeeping operation is a basic and the most important pillar of the international effort to keep and build peace all over the world, which was proved when the UN received Nobel Prize for peace in We can assume that this type of mission is going to be as a main stream in a future and we are supposed to be ready to participate. Even now, Czech army participates within this mission mainly by providing United Nation military observers. Just a few people know, that the Czech participation in based on a history and we already build up a big 14

16 credit of our soldier as a military observers. Our first mission was in 1953 where our military observers altogether with diplomats participated in UN mission in Korea. Based on above mention we cannot disregard these facts, and we are supposed to be still a good member of the international community and be ready to fulfil given tasks not only by NATO but also by European Union and UN. This topic in our army is not developed yet I any documents. The preparation of our military observer is based on the UN guidance. The article should show the way and possibilities how we can deal with training and preparation for mainly Peacetime military engagement and Peace support operation. There are going to be described and suggest possible topics and way of its implication to the training and preparation of our forces not only for above mentioned operation but also for combat and counterinsurgency operation as well. Many of the training objectives could be implied to the officer s training and education system in a military university. 2 Classification of the military operations In order to understand the complex topic as military operation is we can divide military operation based on many factors. However it is not the purpose of this article and for better understanding we will just focused on the essential classification. As it is generally accepted we can divide all military operations according to main effort to four groups as it is depicted in the scheme. Scheme 1: Classification of the military operations Source: in author s possession a. Combat operations This type of operation basically includes operations where two fighting sides are trying to reach their goal using force against either regular armed forces or irregular armed forces (illegal armed groups). The basic tactics in these operations are mainly all spectrums of the offensive and defensive operations. 15

17 b. Counter-Insurgency operations COIN mostly includes operations within the states with races, cultural, religious and ideological disagreements which lead to armed rebellions against government. The main premises for this type of conflicts are weak government and its inability to face insurgent using its own armed forces. c. Peace support operations PSO includes operations where the diplomatic, civilian and military means are used altogether in order to rebuild or keep peace in the crisis area. d. Peacetime military engagement The main purpose of this operation is to create secure sector in peace time. The typical example of these operations is observations missions. Even though we can distinguish among this type of operations it is necessary to mention that to include any operation to specific operation type is not easy as seems to be. Even within one operation we can find countless elements of almost all type of operations. The border between these operations is very weak and from the Peacetime military engagement we can easily move to Country- Insurgency operation in a short time and vice versa. This article is focused on preparation process of the military observer. As it was already mentioned observation missions are include to the fourth type of operation, which is Peacetime military engagement (PSO). The importance of PSO we already discussed in the introduction. However it is vital to stress that readiness for PSO is crucial in order to fulfil possible task. Despite the fact that we will mainly speak about the military observer we can imply this training scheme to possible preparation for other type of mission particularly Peace support operations. 3 Type of the training We can basically classify the training to the four groups: 16 Scheme 2: United nation military observer training classification Source: in author s possession Since the Mission specific training and in-mission training are mainly in a units and mission headquarters hands we will focus on the Generic training. Refresher training in our case is organized by the unit commander during the regular training. We will stress out objectives, topics and skills included in those training groups which could be used and applied in our general training as well as officer education system. 3.1 Generic training This type of training includes obvious subjects, applicable to any soldier. It is determined to train and prepare all soldiers for not only Military observe duty, but also to be a skilful part of the PMO and PSO member. To simplify, we can state that this type of training is developed to transfer all military skills to be applicable for PMO and PSO. Generic training is mainly at nation level and it help build up the nations readiness to send prepared personnel for operation in a short time. Within this training is very desirable to put stress not only on skills, but also on the multinational aspects of the operations. Generic training is applicable to all spectrum of the mission and we can

18 implement some modules to the training for Combat and Counter-insurgency training as well. Moreover in modules of the Generic training we can find applicable information for officers training. Focusing on the Military observer it could be imply in any time before the deployment. The time dedicated to this training could vary according to national level of the training in general. As it was already indicated Generic training incudes four basic modules as it is depicted in the scheme. Scheme 3: United nation military observer generic training Source: in author s possession Module 1: The United Nations, international organizations and legal considerations This module is focused on the essential information concerning UN itself. All PME and PSO participants should understand background, history and organization of this organization. They will be informed about the historical development of the United Nation, its organs and role. All learners will get familiar with history of the peacekeeping operations, their concept, structure, role of the military observer as well as role of the military component of these operations. Very useful part of this module, which is applicable even for the preparation or other type of operations, is a part where the learners will get familiar with role of the UN Agencies, International Organizations (IO) and Non-Governmental Organization (NGO). Those organizations are involved in any type of operations all over the world and officer should definitely know about their participations. Another important topic, which can be used in the education system and training for all spectrum of the military operations is a legal aspects of the operations including code of conduct, gender awareness, international humanitarian law and laws 17

19 of armed conflict. Specifically those topics are very desirable for officer training and education. The scheme below summarized the topics, which are part of the module 1. Scheme 4: United nation military observer generic training module 1 Source: in author s possession Module 2: The military observer s duties and responsibilities This module is focusing on military observer s duties and responsibilities within the PME and PSO. It is necessary to stress that the role of the military observer in this type of operation are vital, since military observers are simply eyes and ears of the commander. Based on the information from the military observer commander of the mission has vital information as we call it commander s critical information requirement (CCIR) based on which the Military Decision Making Process (MDMP) is made. In this module participant will be familiar with essential skills necessary for gaining information and reporting procedure. Module content in a below scheme depicted skills. 18 Scheme 5: United nation military observer generic training module 2 Source: in author s possession

20 And repeatedly event in this specific modules we can identified skills which could be imply to the training and preparation for other kind of military operations. Particularly reporting, which plays crucial role in all operations is very important as well as patrolling and monitoring. Despite the fact that reporting and reporting system vary from operation to operation the core of these skills are similar. There are also possibilities to implement team leading and staff skills to the officer training and education system in all level Module 3: Military observer and PME/PSO member skills and techniques Military observer in many cases will act not only as a soldier but also as a diplomat and mediator. In a daily bases he will need negotiation skills as well as inevitable part of PME a PSO operations, which is knowledge in basic cultural, traditional and religious awareness. Since almost all operation is on the multinational level this aspect should not be disregard. Our soldiers will definitely encounter many situations where they are expected to react adequately despite the cultural or religious differences. Parts of this module are also objectives which are already implemented to our training system. This module is basically focused on the practical training and modelling of the real situations. However we are already practice most of the module objectives, there are still objectives which could be more developed. Scheme 6: United nation military observer generic training module 3 Source: in author s possession As it is seen in the scheme, particularly in this module we are speaking about the practical skills. Some of the subjects included in the negotiation and mediation bubble are media relations, use of interpreters and social interaction with local population. Based on the observations in real operations, those are definitely the skills which are sometimes crucial and more than important. It is easy to state that social interaction is not vital aspect of the soldiers training, but if we consider the fact, that local populations in very reliable source of information we can see this topic from other angle. The similar situation is use of interpreter and media relations. Another subject in a scheme depicted as a DDR, which means Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration is also topic which is not trained and taught apart of military observer. And of course we could find other objectives which could be implemented to our system based on the particular task and operation. 19

21 3.1.4 Module 4: Final exercise The final exercise is the highlight of the training, including most of the topics taught. Exercise can be structured as a PME or PSO with its own basic documents. The exercise supposed to be as real as possible a supposed to cover all vital topics for trainee. Especially the final module is flexible and commander of the trained unit has opportunity to train and check readiness of his unit. It is opportunity to go through all objectives and repeatedly teach all topics. As a very important is feedback, where trainees are going to receive information what was good and what was wrong. If we focused on the military observer officers are divided into teams that carry out given tasks in a simulated situation. Instructors are supervising the planned incidents and give feedback immediately after each incident. After carrying out the given task, the team gives a briefing. When the feedback is given, team leader will be changed and the team will have a new task. Even from this military officers training we can apply some of the procedure. Particularly change of the team leader or in other case could be change of the platoon commander would be very useful in order to make other team member ready to take over the responsibilities for given task in case of need. All spectrum of the incident could be trained especially topics which were during the training recognize as a crucial. 4 Conclusion For over 50 years, the United Nations Military Observers (UNMOs) have been participating in PME and PSO all over the world. They represent entire international community, successfully observed, monitored and contributed to solution finding of the contemporary rammed conflicts. Relying upon their military skills, UNMOs must rapidly adjust to the unique tasks of their mission areas. [1] Within the mentioned 50 years there have been developed a reliable and efficient system of preparation and training. Many countries contributed to this system drawing from the real situations and experience. The system was in countless cases proved as functional and maximally efficient. Moreover this system is very flexible and new knowledge is implemented. Efficiency and proved effectiveness are the reason to consider this system as a reliable source for implementation to our training system especially in case of preparation and training for military operations. As it was indicated in the article there are many possibilities how to use this system and how to implement many objectives and topics. The purpose of this article was not to solve and suggest new training system but to show possible way and open the discussion leading to development of our own training system. Based on the latest information concerning future participation of our army in the EU operation, the significance of this way of thinking obtains a new dimension. Let s this about it and do our best in this field. References [1] Selection standards and training guidelines for United Nations military observers. Department of Peacekeeping Operations/Training and Evaluation Service, New York [2] Guidelines for the selection, deployment, rotation, extension, transfer and repatriation of the military observers in United Nations peacekeeping operations. Department of Peacekeeping Operations, New York [3] Military observer s handbook. United Nations Department of Peace-keeping Operations, New York

22 DECISION PROBLEMS SOLVING IN THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC Monika Grasseová and Eva Štěpánková Abstract: The aim of the paper is to present selected findings of the survey Decision problems solving in the Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic. Quantitative research is focused cross-sectionally in the individual levels of management of the CR MoD (the Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic). The data collection was realized in the period from June to October 2012, the data of the total number of 137 respondents were analyzed. The survey is focused especially on the types of solved problems, obstacles to the rational decision making, methods that are used during decision making and the phases of the process of decision problems solving. Keywords: decision problems solving, Ministry of Defence. 1 Introduction In terms of dealing with an intention of organization s development we focused on advancement of methods, methodologies and heuristics (MMH) for solving unstructured decision making problems. The aim of MMH advancement is to set up clearly the purpose of their use within identified phases of the process of unstructured decision making problems, and define the principles and procedure of their use within the Ministry of Defence for individual defined types of such problems. The reason for dealing with this issue is to increase a quality of decision making and quality of training military professionals in solving unstructured decision- making problems. In order to acquire primary data we chose questionnaire survey. In terms of questionnaire survey we focused on a current state of solving decision-making problems in the CR MoD. The questions are aimed at revealing what types of unstructured problems are dealt with, what obstacles the problem solvers encounter, what methods they use while solving problems, what factors they find significant for successful and efficient decision making, and further what phases they carry out in the process of solving decision-making problems. The research was carried out in the period of June October Problem formulation One of the project goals was to identify and evaluate obstacles to rational solving of unstructured decision-making problems by the management, senior officers and members of staffs of the CR MoD (Questionnaire questions 2-5). Concerning the obstacles we formulated the following hypothesis: Among the major obstacles to efficient solving of unstructured problems there is a lack of time for solving, incomplete or no information at all and insufficient competence (experience) of the management subjects. Additionally, we examined what factors are considered significant for successful and efficient decision making by the CR MoD members. For these factors we formulated the following research hypothesis: The members of the Ministry of Defence consider 21

23 time sufficiency for problem solving, informational sufficiency and clear assignment of the problem (task, mission) to be significant for successful and efficient decision making. 2.1 Theoretical background The standard classification in use for decision making problems is dichotomic, however, the terminology for classification of problems used by experts is not uniform. The classification of decision making problems into well-structured and unstructured (illstructured) in terms of their complexity, clear definition and possibility of algorithm development represents one of the fundamental classifications (Simon, quoted in [1]). With the unstructured decision-making problems the following is typical: - occurrence of several decision makers and involved parties with different views on the problem situation being solved [2],[6]; - occurrence of a rather big number of factors affecting the solving of a given problem (both internal and external), the factors are not exactly known, having complicated and variable interrelations [6]; - randomness of changes within some items of the organization s surrounding (political, economic, technological environment, etc.); - uniform and explicit defining of the problem is difficult [8]; - occurrence of a rather large number of assessment criteria of solution variants, while some of them being of qualitative nature [4]; - difficult availability and interpretation of information necessary for decision taking, and of variables describing the surrounding [2]. Therefore, unstructured problems can be understood as problems whose assignments, ways of solving and required results (goals) are difficult to be identified, described and represented, for example in terms of a mathematical model. [4]. Based on the executed contents analysis of management regulators and strategic (conceptual) documents we work on the presumption that for the past 5 years mainly the following types of unstructured problems have been dealt with in the Ministry of Defence (Questionnaire Question 1): organizational structure change; implementation of the accepted decisions, international obligations, legal requirements, operations and assignments at a lack of resources for allocation; plan processing; source processing into a plan; document processing (conceptual or strategic) dealing with enhancement of the organization or area; processing methodology, standing operational procedure, order or different internal regulation; preparation and realization of training (a training processor, a training participant); preparation and realization of a foreign mission. According to written sources the obstacles to decision making, which hinder the achievement of required quality of solving decision-making problems, can be both on the part of a subject of decision making together with the other participants of a problem solving process [3], and on the part of organizational unit that controls the process of decision making [3]. Fotr [3] who draws on Simon s [7] theory of Bounded rationality includes among the barriers to rational decision making on the part of a subject of decision making (decision-maker) the following: a limited ability of an individual to process information, cognitive extend limitations of every real-time decision-makers, limited ability of an individual to formulate and solve complex decision-making problems, limited ability of an individual to identify themselves with a value system of a group or organization, and reoccurrence of those decisions that have already proved to be ineffective. Fotr [3] quotes the following rationality obstacles on the part of organization: insufficient quality of information basis, inflexibility of organizational structure that 22

24 hinder temporary team creation for solving critical decision making problems, presence of a large number of levels of management hierarchy, and inaccuracy and ambiguity in determining decision-making authority of certain organization members. Therefore, it can be inferred that the effort to increase quality of decision-making processes in organizations is closely related to minimization of these obstacles to rationality. 2.2 Methodology The aim of this paper is to reveal, in terms of research carried out by the members of the Ministry of Defence, factors that positively or negatively affect their decision making. We focused both on the factors whose presence is significant for efficient decision making and also on those obstacles (barriers) that can hinder successful decision making. The survey sample was chosen by means of a method of purpose (deliberate) selection. Out of the total 137 acquired questionnaires two had to be excluded from the further evaluation due to missing data. Thus, the total of questionnaires for the further analysis, or data evaluation, is 135. Out of this number 28 respondents are the personnel of the CR MoD, 10 respondents work at the operational command or at a military institution of the same level, 44 respondents are members of brigades or a similar military institution, 50 work at a battalion or an institution of similar level and 3 respondents are personnel of University of Defence. Potential positive and negative factors were identified by means of the method of brainstorming where a part of the executive team for intention participated, then information acquired at scientific conferences were used and also the data from implementation of the case studies at career courses. The acquired suggestions were consequently modified and evaluated in terms of content similarity and level of similarity. This way a list of factors and obstacles was acquired, factors that are potentially significant in the decision-making process of a commander, and obstacles that the MoD personnel, who participate in problem solving, are supposed to encounter. The factors that are vital for efficient decision making were examined first. The respondents should answer the following question: Rate ALL the factors mentioned in the table according to the level of their significance to you (how important they are in your opinion) for successful and efficient problem solving. These are the factors that were to be evaluated: sufficiency of time / information for problem solving, clear problem assignment (task, mission), sufficiency of experience in solving the given problem, sufficiency of competent personnel participating in problem solving (e.g. in acquiring information, preparing documentation), reliability and responsibility of personnel cooperating in problem solving, sufficiency of theoretical knowledge for solving the assigned problem, quality of cooperation with other departments participating in the problem solving, presence of SW support as well as manual or procedural methodology for problem solving. The respondents rated significance of the individual factors by means of a five-point scale (1 = insignificant factor; 2 = little significant factor; 3 = average significant factor; 4 = very significant factor; 5 = critically significant factor). When identifying decision-making obstacles within MoD the focus was on those obstacles on the part of an organization. The question included in the questionnaire which examined the intensity of the occurrence of individual obstacles perceived by commanders themselves reads as follows: What were the most frequent obstacles which hindered your efficient solving of the problem(s) marked by you in Question 1? The respondents could mark a free number of the offered obstacles which relate to the abovementioned factors of efficient decision making (a lack of time / information, 23

25 unclear assignment of a problem, a lack of experience, a lack of competent personnel and personnel s unreliability and irresponsibility, a lack of theoretical knowledge etc.) Options were offered from which respondents could choose all the obstacles which they perceive as significant. The answer included also an option of adding more obstacles in case that these were not included in the offered variants, but still respondents may consider them to be relevant. 3 Problem solution The summary of the results relating to the respondents rating the significance of the decision-making factors is illustrated in the Graph 1. To help orientation within the graph the offered rating of the individual factors was reduced into three groups - little significant factor (scale point 1 and 2), average significant factor (point 3) and very significant factor (point 4 and 5). Graph 1: Rating factor significance of the efficient decision making Let us turn our attention to some of the statistical characteristics of the explored data. To be able to obtain insight of the data distribution it is appropriate to present an average, median and modus of variables see Table 1. The presented values relate to the original five points rating the significance of the individual aspects by the respondents. 24

26 A B C D E F G H I J K Average 3,92 4,60 4,50 3,40 3,61 3,94 3,33 3,34 2,70 2,97 3,20 Median Modus Table 1: Rating factor significance of the efficient decision making average, median and modus Legend: A sufficiency of time for problem solving; B sufficiency of information for problem solving; C clear problem assignment; D sufficiency of experience in problem solving; E - sufficiency of competent personnel participating in problem solving; F - reliability and responsibility of personnel cooperating in problem solving; G - sufficiency of theoretical knowledge for solving the given problem; H - quality of cooperation with other departments participating in the problem solving; I - presence of SW support for problem solving; J presence of manual, methodology and procedures for problem solving; K knowledge of appropriate methods for problem solving and the way of their applications. Based on the graph 1 and table 1, it is evident that the respondents assign at least average significance to all of the offered factors of the efficient decision making, and they consider the most of them to a great extend to be even very significant factors of successful decision making. The overwhelming majority of the respondents (more than 90%) percieves as significant mainly these factors of efficient decision making: sufficiency of information for problem solving and necessity of clear problem assignment. The aforementioned is supported also by fairly high values of averages, medians and modes with these variables. The next three aspects that are according to the majority of the respondents significant in decision making are characteristics of their colleagues especially their reliability and responsibility (76%), sufficiency of time for problem solving (74%) and sufficiency of competent personnel (60%). The average rating of these aspects in the sample is close to point 4 (very significant factor), the same is the value of median and mode for these quantities. The remaining factors are percieved approximately by a half of the respondents as significant and by the other half as average significant. All the statistical characteristis under consideration are situated around point 3 (average significant factor). Next, let us focus on evaluation of those obstacles that the respondents view as hindering the efficient decision making significantly. The total results indicating a number of marking the individual obstacles to rational decision making, as it was offered in the questionnaire, is summarized in the Graph 2. 25

27 26 Graph 2 Obstacles to rational decision making in MoD The personnel of MoD mention as the most frequent obstacle to efficient decision making a lack of time and information provided for problem solving. These two obstacles are presented by about two thirds of the respondents. Then a significant obstacle that is confirmed by about a half of the respondents is unclear assignment of tasks and problems to solve. There is a less frequent mention of the obstacles regarding problematic cooperation with the other sections of the Ministry which are involved in problem solving, absence of a clearly defined procedure of problem solving and a lack of competent personnel participating in problem solving. The other obstacles to efficient decision making are declared in fewer numbers. About a quarter of the respondents admits a lack of experience with solving assigned problems. Less than a fifth of the respondents mentions obstacles such as unreliability or irresponsibility of the personnel participating in problem solving, absence of SW support for problem solving, a lack of theoretical knowledge or absence of knowledge of appropriate methods for problem solving. In total, thirteen respondents then state different obstacles, among them for example parallel occurrence of more tasks at the same time, absence of knowledge on the part of superiors about competences of inferiors, inappropriate organizational structure, sudden changes in assigned tasks, indecisiveness of senior officers, etc. Only five from all the respondents state that they do not encounter any obstacles to efficient decision making at work. Subsequently, we examined differences and similarities in intensity of declared obstacles at individual levels of management. In addition to the total overview of the key obstacles to decision making in the Ministry of Defence we further examined what obstacles the members of MoD encounter at different levels of management.

28 It can be stated that there were no significant differences in perception of the most significant factors and obstacles to rational decision making identified among individual levels. The personnel of all levels identify the most important requirement for efficient decision making in the necessity of a sufficient number of information available for problem solving, and then necessity of a clear assignment of a problem or task. In other areas the situation is similar, since the respondents do not differ significantly. In other words, the significance of the individual aspects is perceived quite similarly. No significant differences were identified in perception of the factors of the efficient decision making of the members of different management levels in Armed Forces of the Czech Republic. As the most significant obstacles to rational decision making these aspects are again indicated with the highest score: a lack of time, and similarly with the key factors there comes also a lack of provided information for solving the given problem. Further trends of evaluating the significant obstacles to efficient decision making, specific for individual levels, follow below. Additional significant obstacles to decision making in MoD personnel s view are unclear problem assignments, problematic cooperation with other department sections and absence of a standardized procedure for solving the assigned task. Personnel of operational command or unit feel not only a lack of time and information to be significant obstacles but also unclear problem assignment and problematic cooperation with other department sections. Unlike MoD, they further refer to another obstacle in terms of unreliability and irresponsibility of participating personnel, however, they mention less a lack of experience with the assigned problem, and do not mention missing manual or procedural methodology for problem solving. Members of brigades again find a problematic aspect in unclear problem or task assignment, then also in a lack of competent staff and in cooperation with other department sections. And again, as it is with MoD, another obstacle to efficient decision making is the absence of manual or procedural methodology for problem solving. Members of a battalion, unit or other military institution of the same level mention again, in addition to the most pressing obstacles of time and information, unclear assignment of tasks or problems, while the other obstacles to efficient decision making are similar as it is the case with brigades. Personnel of University of Defence (UO) demonstrate similar views of obstacles as the above mentioned levels of the Ministry of Defence. However, it is necessary to point out that some of the frequent obstacles mentioned at the other levels are less frequent in UO s view (e.g. a lack of time and information, unclear problem assignment, and problematic cooperation with other department sections). On the other hand, UO personnel mark different obstacles as relevant more often in comparison with the other levels (e.g. a lack of theoretical knowledge or experience for the assigned problem solving, absence of SW support as well as manual or procedural methodology for problem solving). Generally speaking, there are no sharp differences in perception of the most significant obstacles to efficient decision making at the individual levels of the Ministry of Defence. Frequency of mentioning the individual obstacles does not significantly differ through the individual levels. 4 Conclusion In the article presented here the validity of the following hypothesis has been verified: Among the major obstacles to efficient solving of unstructured problems there is a lack of time for solving, incomplete or no information at all and insufficient competence 27

29 (experience) of the management subjects. The aforementioned hypothesis has been only partly supported. In the executed survey four major obstacles to efficient decision making have occurred. According to this finding the established hypothesis is to be modified as follows: Among the major obstacles to efficient solving of unstructured decision-making problems there is a lack of time for solving, incomplete or no information at all and unclear assignment of a problem or task. Further significant obstacles include problematic cooperation with other department sections which are involved in the same task, and absence of a standardized procedure for solving the assigned task. The remaining obstacles, among them also a lack of experience with solving the assigned task, seem to be less important, or at least less frequently mentioned by the members of the CR Ministry of Defence. Furthermore, we verified the hypothesis for factors that the CR Ministry of Defence members consider significant for successful and efficient decision making: the MoD members consider the major factors for successful and efficient decision making to be time sufficiency for problem solving, informational sufficiency and clear problem (task, mission) assignment. Based on the questionnaire survey it has been shown that the most of the respondents (more than 90%) percieve factors of efficient decision making as important when it comes to informational sufficiency for solving of the given problem and necessity of clear problem assignment. The abovementioned is supported further by fairly high average values, medians and modes at these variables. Three additional aspects, which are, according to the majority of the respondents, significant in decision making are characteristics of their colleagues mainly their reliability and responsibility (76%), time sufficiency for problem solving (74%) and a sufficient number of competent personnel (60%). The aforementioned hypothesis has been only partly supported. In the executed survey five major factors of successful and efficient decision making have occurred. According to this finding the established hypothesis is to be modified as follows: members of the Ministry of Defence rank among the major factors that are significant for successful and efficient decision making the informational sufficiency for the given problem solving, necessity of its clear assignment, reliability and responsibility of cooperating personnel, time sufficiency for problem solving, and sufficient information and competent personnel. References [1] BASADUR M. S., ELLSPERMANN S. J. and EVANS G. W. A new methodology for formulating ill-structured problems. Omega, Vol. 22, No.6, 1994, pp [2] ELLSPERMANN, S. J., EVANS, G. W. and BASADUR, M. The impact of training on the formulation of ill-structured problems. The International Journal of Management Science, Vol. 35, 2007, pp [3] FOTR, J. et al. Manažerské rozhodování: Postupy, metody a nástroje. Ekopress, [4] GRASSEOVÁ, M. and ŠTĚPÁNKOVÁ. E. Obstacles to Efficient Decision Making in the Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic. In: Recent Advances in Energy, Environment and Economic Development. Paříž: WSEAS Press, 2012, p ISSN ISBN [5] HAMMOND, J. S., KEENEY, R. L., RAIFFA, H. Smart choice: A Practical Guide to Making Better Decisions. Harward Business School Press,

30 [6] MINGERS, J. and ROSENHEAD, J. Problem structuring methods in action. European Journal of Operational Research, Vol. 152, 2004, pp [7] SIMON, H. A. The New Science of Management Decision. Prentice Hall, [8] VESELÝ, A. Problem delimination and problem structuring in public policy, Karolinum,

31 COMPARING MILITARY TECHNOLOGY DEVICES WITH MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION MAKING AND SOLVING GROUP DECISION PROBLEMS József Gyarmati and Peter Zentay Abstract: The paper presents a military application of a multi-criteria decision problem. In the first part the used MDCM model is introduced. The utilisation of this model is presented in the second part of the paper. The third part presents a solution for group decision making with multiple criteria. Keywords: decision theory, military technology devices, group decision making. 1 Introduction In the paper decision problems are examined where the decision maker is faced with a choice constrained of many course of actions and these variants are examined by the decision maker according to many different properties. The decision maker has to choose the optimal course of action according to his aims based on his score of values. The task can be solved by MCDM (Multi-Criteria Decision Making) which is a widely used method of operational research. The general model of the solution is shown in equation (1). A A A 30 C C C 1 2 m w w w 1 2 m a a a m1 x1 x2 xn where: A j = j th alternative; C i = i th criterion; w i = i th criterion s weight number; a ij = performance of j th alternative based on i th criterion; x j = measurement of overall effectiveness of j th alternative. According to equation (1) the course of action are characterized by m criteria by the decision maker according to his aims. The importance of each criterion are different from the point of view of the decision maker, this can be taken into consideration by w j weights. Each alternative are valuated according to the criterion, this is shown by the a ij value. To each alternative a value is rendered according to the following equation: x j = f(c i ;w i ;a ij ) (2) According to the function used in equation (2) x i can be a value defined an ordinal scale, in this case the rank of the course of action is the solution. Using an appropriate function, x i can be defined on a ratio scale in this case the difference and ratio between the courses of action can be determined. The determinant property of MCDM is the multiple examination points of view. The decision maker is not satisfied by examining only one property, because his aims are a a a m2 a ij a a a n 1n 2n mn (1)

32 complex that is why he wants to accomplish many aims that differ from each other, at one time. 2 AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) the applied MCDM method The method was first published in 1980 according to [1] and from ever since it is widely used. Let A 1, A 2, A n be alternatives and the values of these be shown by p 1, p 2, p n, and p i R + i=1 n. The C [x ij ] n n matrix can be defined by the x ij = p i /p j and the p T [p 1, p 2, p n ] vector where j = 1 n. According to the definitions the following equation (3) is valid: C p = λ p (3) where: λ is the eigenvalue and p is the eigenvector of the C matrix. The alternatives are known by the decision maker from which the fraction p i /p j can be estimated and the estimated Ĉ can be made using this p can be solved. According to equation (3) the point values of alternatives are contained by the p eigenvector belonging to the maximal eigenvalue (λ max ). The comparison is done hierarchically. The decision maker determines the criteria according to his aims. The criterion has to be weighed according to equation (3). The weight numbers is contained by the eigenvector of the quadratic matrix of which size is determined by the number of point of views. Following this all alternatives have to be compared in pairs according to criteria. For the comparison the AHP method uses the p i /p j {1,2 9} scale if p i >p j. The p i /p j =1 means indifference between two examined alternatives, while in the case of p i /p j =9 A i is extremely more important than A j. Altogether the number of paired quadratic comparison matrices is equal to the number of criteria, where the size of the matrix (the number of rows and columns) are set by the number of alternatives. The eigenvectors of all of the paired comparison matrices show the values of the analysed alternatives according to the given criterion. The weight numbers and the normalized values by each criterion have to be summarised according equation (5). where a ij is the normalized value of the x ij. x j 3 Military application of MCDM 3.1 General description For the characterisation of the ability of a military device the analysis of only one feature is not sufficient. In the interest that these devices can be measured from the user s point of view it is necessary to observe many characteristics collectively. The MCDM is suitable for solving this task. The assumption is proven by briefly presenting a practical application. Beforehand it is necessary to examine that in which case the application of this method is useful. The most general and frequent case is acquisition. During the acquisition process the MoD makes a tender and the manufacturers or the dealer-distributors companies apply to the tender. The applications differ according to economic or users point of views. The task of the authorised personnel of the Ministry of Defence, is to select the best possible alternatives, that contain the economical considerations (purchase price, paying conditions, maintenance costs, investments, etc.) and also the technical parameters. The process of comparing and selecting the optimal device: 1. Identifying the aims of the decision maker. In order that these aims be identifiable, firstly the application circumstances of the military devices have to be determined. The answers to the questions have to be given For what do we want to use the device for? In what circumstances and in what condition? Only after clarifying m i 1 w a i ij (4) 31

33 these questions those aims can be formulated, that we want to achieve with the given military device. 2. Determining the alternatives. It is important to have sufficient information about the up to date military devices and weapon system. The information on the military devices helps in the determination of the decision criteria. The data acquisition should be based on a simple market research, and also necessary to collect all the peace- and wartime operation experiences. 3. Determining decision criteria. It indicates the decision making aims in the model, but during their determination the property of the device have to be taken into consideration. This is the most complex part of the process that has the largest effect on the result. In every case it has two projections; the economical and user. The economical point of view is financial. The most common used points of views for the military devices are the firepower, mobility and armour protection. 4. Weighing decision criteria. The scale of value of the decision makers are displayed in the decision model as the criteria together with their preferences. The weighing is supported by mathematical models such as AHP. The applications of models help this step. It is a difficulty that the personnel taking part in the process have generally different scale of values. The weight numbers have to be based on consensus among the experts taking part in the decision process. 5. Selecting a comparison method. There are great many MCDM methods found in international literature. These methods also have many properties; this means that the selection of a method is again a multi-criteria decision problem. It is important to know what kind of results is expected by the decision maker, for example a ratioscale level is needed or a preference order of alternatives is satisfying enough. In Hungary the statutes for public procurement gives the model for comparison that in some cases are also valid for military procurement. 6. The application of the method and validating the results. In this case the property of the used MCDM method has to be taken into consideration. Sensitivity analysis can be used. 3.2 Comparing Artillery pieces The comparison analysis is published in details in [3]. 1. The decision aim is the selection of optimised ordnance of an artillery battery of a mechanized infantry battalion. 2. Infantry battalions most generally are equipped with 120mm mortar battery, but there are also different cases for example with a smaller than 150mms howitzer. The combat procedures are continuously developing that implies the change of weapons this is why the 120mm and the 81mm mortar are being compared. During the selection of weapons the ordnance manufactured by ally and the possible hostile countries were taken into consideration, because the determination of a proportion or a preference can be important that show the relationship of weapons between our own and the enemy s. The weapons in the paper are not mentioned in detail to avoid any promotions. 3. Starting from the aims of the decision maker and taking into consideration the ordnance the following criterion were determined: rate of fire, range, fragment effect, displacement time and battlefield mobility. During the research economical point of views were not taken into considerations, because these monetary sums are only available in details during the acquisition process. The authors do not wish to spoil the accuracy of the comparison with the use of estimated values only. 4. The weighing of point of views was made by the AHP method. For the weighing a form was applied that are used for the AHP a method and AHP questionnaire was 32

34 filled out by thirty competent people (expert). From the results, it can be stated that, the opinion of the importance of the criteria of the experts are significantly different, that requires further research. This result is explained in chapter 4 of this paper. 5. The comparison were made by the AHP analysis, the results are shown in Figure In Figure 1 the comparison of two 81mm and two 120mm mortar is shown. The figure shows two values for the 120mm mortar referring to the classical high explosive shell and the extended range shell (rocket assisted). From the Figure 1 it is clear that taking into consideration only the high explosive shell, there is no significant difference between the 81mm and 120mm mortar but the firepower of the 120mm mortar is evidently much larger. The advantage of the larger calibre weapon is only evident in the case of the extended range shell. The approximate identity of the measurement of overall effectiveness of 120mm and 81mm mortals is a result of the criteria and its weights. Those points of view were taken into consideration where the smaller calibre weapons have an advantage. The example shows well that how the selection of the points of views meaning the determination of the precise aims of the decision maker effects the outcome of the valuation. These results are further examined in chapter 4 of this paper. 1, mm 120 mm ER ER 0,8 0,6 HE HE HE HE 0,4 0,2 0 M1 M2 M3 M4 Figure 1: Result of mortar s AHP analysis [3] 4 Solution for a Group Decision Problem 4.1 Group Decision Problem of artillery pieces For the formulation of the problem firstly the decision making person have to be clarified. In the case of a military device the decision making person is the one who makes the selection considering the given method from the incoming proposals for the given ordnance. The advantages and disadvantages realised by the decision effects many people and also many people take part in the preparation of the decision. The documentation of the tender is prepared according to the aims of the decision maker that identifies what functions and utility has to be satisfied by the purchased ordnance. In addition the documentation has many projections: financial, user, technical, logistical. Several experts take part in the preparation, most often: economical, technical and user. The experts establish their preferences according to their own point of views. An economical expert has a different scale of value than a user. A significant opinion difference can also be between the users, due to the fast development of military technology and the continuous changing of combat procedures. In many cases the decision making process can be considered as a future estimation, where the decision maker tries to estimate the usage in the future of the ordnance to be purchased and based on this estimation rank them. 33

35 order In the case when the decision maker is searching for the correct solution by depending upon the knowledge of more experts, can experience the dispersion of the opinion of the experts. The correct solution should be searched through the expert opinions. The difference of opinions can contain important information especially if it appears on the user s side. The expert s opinions of the preference of the considerations of experts were measured during the comparison of ordnance and are shown in Figure 2 by boxplot analysis. From Figure 2 it is clear that by taking the importance of expert opinions, a considerable difference can be seen, not regarding the shooting distance. The opinion difference can be caused by hidden information that the decision maker has to know. A solution of the consensus search of group decision problems is offered by stochastic APH, where the experts p i /p j preference distribution is analysed, a solution is given in [5]. The consensus among opinions has many disadvantages. The average, no matter how it is determined, would not represent the scale of value of all the participant and it would lead to the loss of information. The difference in opinion in general has a well defined reason. These are usually kind of non general opinions that are supported by one part of the experts and rejected by others. It can serve as important information for the decision maker. A good example of this is presented in the research of [3], of which a relevant part of it is shown in Figure 3. The research in [3] where the experts were ranked into groups by the help of multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis according to their relevant opinion of the weight numbers of their criteria. Experts with nearly the same opinions are collected in these groups forming the so called opinion centre these opinion centres are identifiable with indicating reasons. Figure 3 shows the averaged weight numbers opinion of two opinion centres. The most significant is the different judgement of the points of view of the firepower (rate of fire, range, and fragment effect) and the point of views considering the size and weight of Rate of fire Range Fragment effect Displacement time Battlefield mobility Figure 2: Box plot analysis of criteria s preferences of mortar [3] the device (displacement time, mobility). In Figure 3, group A prefers the large firepower less mobile while group B the smaller firepower but more mobile device. The following problem occurs during averaging, that before designating the experts the opinion centres are not known and there is no sampling procedure lacking the previous knowledge that with its accessible help every opinion centres is represented by the 34

36 sufficient number of experts. In the example group A had the larger number of participants, but this does not mean that this opinion is the determinant. A C 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,1 0 Rate of fire Range Fragment effect Displacement time Mobility 0 Rate of fire Range Fragment effect Displacement time Mobility Figure3: Weight of the groups [3] The experts in group B without any exception had foreign mission experiences. The results can also be explained by, that there are opinions that the smaller calibre, lighter and more battlefield movable devices are desirable, but these are only indicated by the expert s own foreign mission experiences. In all cases this supplementary information from the group decision process has to be dealt with on its proper level by the decision maker. 4.2 Proposed solution of Group Decision Process The development of military equipment is fast. The application of troops and the battle procedure are also changing fast based on the experience of the wars in the last decades. It follows many different opinions about the future application of the examined military device. The army operates military devices from the acquisition to the recycling decades depending on the type. The cost of devices and its operation and maintenance is very high and the purchased device has to be usable after the acquisition for a long time. The mentioned problem is complex and all the available information is needed to solve it. On one hand the information goes from the market and the military practice on the other hand it goes from the experience of military person. The task of decision maker is to choose the most applicable device for the troops. There are many experts who help the work of the decision maker and they usually prepare the decision which means comparing the military devices and giving the result of comparison to the decision maker. This paper and the [3] and the [4] show that these experts opinions are different. If the decision maker counts average among these opinions it causes the following problems: - the average do not represent all experts; - and it causes loss of information. The process of MCDM methods is well defined and the decision maker need objective result but all method based on criteria and its weight number. The criteria have to be based on the aims of the decision maker and these criteria importance is different. The result of calculating weight number based on the experts opinion and it is subjective and depend especially the experience and the scale of values of the expert. The decision that means the selection of the optimal device has a long time and great effect therefore all information and opinion should be important. In this case a suitable mathematical model that helps to insert all opinion to the decision process has to be searched. The multivariate statistic suits to solve the group decision problem. The [3] and the [4] show an example where cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling was used. Both 35

37 models should be used because in this case the results can be compared. The process creating subgroups: 1. Fulfilling AHP questionaries by each expert. 2. Calculating eigenvector of each expert s paired comparison matrix. 3. Grouping the expert with multivariate statistic. 4. Identifying the reason caused by opinion centers. Solving this problem AHP method is proposed because its outcome is ratio scale weight numbers. If the AHP process not applicable for instance the number of criteria creating the preference order of criteria is proposed. The subgroups should be created using rank correlation methods in this case. Proposed solution of group decision making: 1. Creating a represent sample of experts. 2. Identifying subgroups of experts with nearly the same opinion. 3. Identifying the reason that forms the subgroups. 4. Using the information identified by subgroups. 5 Conclusion The paper presented the use of MCDM for comparing military devices. According to the results it can be stated that the order of priority can be decided in every case. The comparison may be hindered by the available certified data and information. The lack of data is most evident in the case of the financial point of view, in that case, when the comparison is not made during the purchase, but during a decision preparation or an R&D planning phase. The comparison of military devices in all cases is a group decision problem, because of the large number of the affected parties. Stochastic methods provide help in solving these problems. Important information can be gained by the identification of opinion centres and by determining the indicating reasons of opinion differences between individual groups. The opinion centres can be identified by multivariate statistic. References [1] SAATY, T. L. The Analytic Hierarchy Process: Planning, Priority Settings, Resource Allocation. New York: McGraw-Hill, [2] BRANS, J. P., and VINCKE, P. H. A preference ranking organization method (The PROMETHEE method for multiple critera decision making). Management Science, 1985, 11(6), [3] GYARMATI, J., FELHÁZI, S., KENDE, G. Choosing the Optimal Mortal for an Infantry Battalion s Mortar Battery with Analytic Hierarchy Process using Multivariate Statistics. NATO RTO, Decision Support Methodologies for Acquisition of Military Equipment, Symposium Brussels, ISBN: , 2009, Available from: ftp://ftp.rta.nato.int//pubfulltext/rto/mp/rto-mp-sas- 080/MP-SAS doc. [4] GYARMATI, J. Application of statistical analysis in the selection of the optimum variant of a 12.7 mm calibre rifle. Academic and Applied Research in Military Science (ISSN ), (3), Available from: [5] HAHN, E. D. Decision Making with Uncertain Judgment: A Stochastic Formulation of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Decision Sciences, (3),

38 ENSURING OF COMPETETIVE ADVANTAGE IN THE MARKETPLACE THROUGH LOGISTICS Petr Hajna, Vladimír Halenka and Vladislav Vincenec Abstract: The article deals with the procedures leading to competitive advantage by reducing costs and increasing the value of the product. Innovation of final products are always necessary and in the forefront of corporate governance. At the same time on the same level gets the ability to innovate processes throughout the supply chain and their integration in order to make them a tool to gain competitive advantage. Long term use of methods to achieve profit and maintain its position in the market, cost reduction with time, after which the product is on the market or with the growing market share, are no longer sufficient in the current conditions. The key performance indicators of the supply chain, are the cost of goods sold and inventory turnover. Keywords: logistics, marketing, logistics management, supply chain, competitive advantage, business environment, globalization of industry, strategy planning. 1 Introduction Organizations that are moving on the market, increasingly understand that for better use of their products or services on the market. And success of their business is necessary besides a reducing of costs also better serve to customers. It is also clear that these two goals can not be longer realized only by a standard practice within their own organizations. Such as increased of labor productivity, reduced of material consumption, reduce of administrative costs, etc., but it is necessary to make consistent changes in management of the organization in today's complex market environment. The leading organization started besides managing of procedures within their own organization to focus on practices throughout the supply chain (Supply Chain) and moving from managing their organization's logistics management logistics. 2 Logistics and supply chain management A key element in logistics and warehouse management are accurate and current information. Only provided, that you have a current and truthful data, you can begin to optimize logistics processes inside and outside the organization. We can help you effectively manage the entire logistics - purchasing, storage, sale, suppliers or transport. Logistics is essentially focused on plans (plans) for the movement of products and information in the environment. Supply chain management using the created framework and seek to integrate and coordinate processes (supplier and customer in the environment). The objective of supply chain management can be, for example limiting the amount of assets in the stocks that exist within the organizations of the supply chain through the sharing of information on demand and current inventory levels. These approaches require a change of thinking in relations between organizations in the supply 37

39 Services chain. Supply chain management is focused on cooperation, trust and understanding that if the chain is properly managed, is achieved the necessary synergies. One possible definition of supply chain management is: Management of relationships between suppliers and customers in order to provide maximum customer value while reducing costs in the whole supply chain [1]. Supply chain management focuses on monitoring and control of relationships to profitably for all elements of the chain. Of course, this can cause conflicts, especially in situations where a very narrow interest of one of the chain has subordinate the interests of the whole chain of the advantage. The logic of the foregoing that while we normally use the term supply chain management, more correctly, we should use the term demand chain management (because the aim of our the best service highest value added market for goods lowest cost cost reduction Figure: 1 Market and competitive advantage Source: [1] efforts should be to satisfy the customer, not the supplier), and network, because relationships are not simply in the process in line but will rather resemble the individual elements interconnected networks of relationships. Efficient logistics and supply chain management is the source for competitive advantage. Success in the market is made up of the basic elements of supply chains, but you can simply say that the most important are the relationships between our company, customers and competitors. Source of competitive advantage is the ability of the organization in the eyes of the customer to differentiate from competitors and to work with lower cost and higher profit. In a competitive environment, success can bring either an advantage in reducing its own cost or benefit of increased value added to the consumer - the best concurrence of both. The traditional way to reduce costs is by increasing the volume of production, the price per unit decreases with the number of products sold. Logistics and supply chain management provides many opportunities to increase efficiency and productivity of each process and thus reduce costs. In many fields of logistics costs represent such a high proportion of total costs that reach their reduction is possible only general reorganization of supplier processes. Customers in mature markets don t seek specific product (product, service), but look for the best value for their investment money. 38

40 In other words, the product does not buy them to be customer owned, but because it expects to receive ownership of the product something "will". For some product prevails for some of its specific working parameters, others prefer a product having some, for them attractive performance characteristics. If the product or service is its value does not differ from others on the market, the customer usually buys cheaply available. Therefore, it is necessary that the product is somehow differentiate from those similar to the market. This can be achieved, for example, by adding a specific product added value to certain market segments. This method experts call "segmentation" of the market [1]. Adding a value becomes a very powerful tool to attract and retain the benefits of the market. Similarly, it is a powerful tool to add value through additional services. The market is becoming more and more sensitive to providing respectively. failure to provide other related services. That is why more and more companies focus on providing additional services as a means to suppress competition and achieve competitive advantage. In this context, the suppliers try providing enhanced service offerings to establish closer relationships with their customers. Expanding services can be imagine in a wide range of delivery method, providing customer service, financial services, other technical support, etc. Ways to success in the market can be represented by a simple graph. Companies whose market position corresponds to the position at the bottom left of the graph, are indistinguishable from their competitors, produces high costs do not provide services beyond the scope provided by competing suppliers. It is only a matter of time when their market share will drop so much that it disappears. A market will not even notice it as a loss. The only way to salvation leads in the direction of the arrows by moving either up or right. Path reducing internal costs such as reducing the proportion of fixed costs increase sales of products or the close involvement of the customer in the development of the product, etc. [2] The opportunity may present itself by introducing new technology, it does not sooner or later be available for competitors. As already described, the strategy of reducing costs and by increasing production is the traditional way to reach a competitive advantage. The described strategy is most effective in the early stages of the sale, allowing you to reach a strategic position in the market and an advantage over the competition and sometimes even forcing higher-cost producers to leave the market. The main instrument for achieving benefits through cost reduction, however, increasingly appears to be a reassessment of the logistics system and supply chain management. Whereas that in many industries is the cost of a considerable part of the total logistics cost, the revision can be achieved by substantially greater cost savings than what can be achieved by increasing production. The second option to leave the area in the bottom left corner of the graph is the path and provide better service. Customers in all fields expect more reliability from suppliers and willingness to respond to their needs, or require shorter lead times, delivery "just-in-time" and related services with high added value. As already mentioned, the ideal position of the company or its product on the market is in the upper right corner of the graph in Figure 2 Management of companies looking for ways to reach these positions. Companies that reach this position, they are distinguishable from other market players. Products, which they are offering, providing customers more value than the competition and at the same time their production is associated with low cost. It can be proved that the logistics management has the ability to contribute their own company to achieve both benefits: reducing costs and adding value. 39

41 3 Logistics management tasks From the above it is clear that the task of management is to provide logistics planning and organization of all activities necessary so that the result is the delivery of the best possible product at the lowest cost. Therefore, the logistics must look as close interconnection market the feedstock base. Logistics management is a means to satisfy customer needs by coordinating the flow of material and information between the market and suppliers (through his own company and its internal and external processes). In the past, production and marketing was seen as two separately operating processes. At best, they were held together, not excluding cases where between them flared open fight. Production priorities were focused on effectiveness and efficiency, which was achieved by high-serializability, minimal changes and standardization of products. Marketing on the other hand tried to achieve competitive advantage through supply variant diversity, raising the necessary services to the customer and very frequent product innovations. In today's dynamic environment are conflicts between marketing and production counterproductive and unnecessary. Representatives of both areas must seek ways to achieve a common goal. It is no coincidence that the last time the marketing and production of re-entering the center of attention. Marketing is therefore understanding, the focus on the customer and meet their needs is increasingly seen as one of the basic strategies of survival in the market. At the same time there is great pressure to reduce costs, resulting in major changes in the management and organization of production. The described situation is a logistics integrator of all other processes and provides a system view on what is happening in the company. 4 Supply chain and competition Businesses have traditionally seen themselves as the elements that exist on the market independently and together with other companies competing with each other and fight to survive. Survives the one who adapts quickly. That attitude prevents many companies understand the fact that the market is better cooperate to achieve benefits than another (to destruction) to fight. Although it sounds like a contradiction, it is a simple expression of the idea of integration of supply chains. The supply chain is a network of participating organizations, which are interconnected supplier-customer links in many processes and activities that creates value in the form of product or service provided by the final consumer. For example, a clothing manufacturer in the supply chain has a link to the supplier of the substance, which is dependent on producing fiber weaving. On the other hand, the clothing manufacturer have to work with a distribution network and stores that his product as quickly as possible, in the required quantity and appropriate quality is given to the consumer. All companies participating in the supply chain and design, must work together. So far, this is often not the individual participants and they don t work together. Here we must understand that as what we call supply chain, are no cross-ownership. In the past, a form of management seemed to be optimal, but now more and more organizations are focusing on those activities that they do best, in which they have a competitive advantage. The rest of abandoning another form of outsourcing, more or less part of the work is done outside the organization. A typical example is the automotive industry, where most of the parts originally came from his own company. At present, the vast majority of brands focused on developing, marketing and trade, and production of parts and groups of leaves suppliers. This way of organizing work is of course not only owns the automobile industry, examples can be found in a wide range of companies, from sports equipment to computers to home electronics. The trend of increased use of outsourcing has obviously impacts on supply chain management, at 40

42 least in coordinating the flow of materials from numerous suppliers (often from abroad) and distribution of finished products through a large number of intermediaries. The reason for this is that all the costs in the supply chain ultimately reflected in the price of the finished product on the market. Companies that aspire to the role of market leader, understood this fact and are now trying to establish procedures that will make the whole supply chain more competitive by reducing costs and increasing the value of products. The above companies understand that competition is not company against company, but among supply chains. 5 Changes of business environment Changes that affect current business have also an impact on logistics. It is no exaggeration to say that the biggest impact of the ongoing changes in the business environment is just the logistics. What involved changes mainly? This includes the following changes: - New competitive environment; - Downward pressure on prices; - More significant role of the customer. New competitive environment Earlier, it was stated that in the current business is a change in the understanding of the competition. Now do not compete companies with each other, but there is a competition between supply chains. It is mainly because the customer requires reliable delivery of timely delivery of goods, which can only be guaranteed by smoothly functioning systems able to react quickly to changings of demands of the market. In the past, worked simple marketing strategies, take a strong brand, run a massive advertising campaign, along with aggressive selling methods guarantee the success of your product. The current state of business shows that the former model will no longer be able to satisfy more customers. Instead, companies must demonstrate that they have the competence and ability to compete in the market. This can be achieved mainly by the ability to deliver a product with high customer value. The ability to provide a high added value to the customer is that the organization will focus on the main processes which are managed and implement better than the competition. The main processes include the development, relationships with suppliers and customers, and order fulfillment. Numerous companies consider now as one of the critical processes the logistics of supply and distribution logistics. It shortens the life cycle of the product, customers are embracing practices just-in-time and the market is changing from a seller's market to 41

43 raw materials purchased parts parts of own production work in progress unfinished installation completion components shipment on the way production work in process vehicles loading and shipping shipment on the way stores customer Resource s Number of days 120 supplier-primary production logistics supply vehicle manufacturers logistics distribution distribution and sale of Figure 2: Course of the stocks in the automotive industry Source [1] customer market. In such a situation determines the availability of demand, it is shown that the decision to purchase a specific product is produced in the time and place of purchase. These cases, where the ability to influence the success of logistics, concerns not only the consumer market. The business market is also reflected in the fact that the parameters of a specific product are less important than the timeliness of delivery and flexible response to customer needs. This does not mean that the technical parameters become less important. In parallel with this, as the ability to influence the market shifts from the supplier to the customer, is the fact that customers want to reduce the number of their suppliers. Business success in the future will lie in ability how much are they able to establish mutually beneficial relationships with major customers. Given the focus on critical customer activity, in case creating of closer relations between him and the supplier be the case that the supplier will produced directly in the customer's business and deliver the entire subsystems directly to the production line (method of just-in-time II). Examples of this procedure are known in the automotive, aerospace and electronics industries. It has already been mentioned process of shortening of product life cycle. In extreme cases, it happens that at the request of the market is developed, manufactured and distributed product that is at the time of placing on the market obsolete. 42 maximum average minimum

44 A good example is the area of personal computing and information technology in general. Shortening of the life cycle raises of course the fundamental problems for logistics management. Shortening of life cycle requires shorter supply. It is traditionally perceived as the time elapsed from the time the order is placed to delivery of goods. With the change in environment will be necessary to apply a broader view of the time of delivery and include it in all activities from product design, purchasing, production to distribution to the market. Already now there are cases where the life cycle is shorter than the time of delivery. Downward pressure on prices Although this is not true in general, in most markets today is significantly larger price battle than it was twenty years ago. Falling prices in the shops, followed by prices of components, raw materials and industrial products. This happens especially in sectors such as consumer electronics, home furnishings, clothing and air transportation. While part of the decrease in prices can be explained by the normal reduction in prices due to gain of experiences with the production, a large proportion of cases have other reasons. Large share of the price reduction can be attributed to new competitors that have entered the global market. They usually produce quality consumer goods and lower prices by using its low-cost production base. Another part of downward pressure on prices is due to the removal of trade barriers, making it easier for new entrants to the market, quickly establishing itself. It also means that in many industries can be developed an excess of production capacity, which leads to a surplus of supply over demand, thus creating further downward pressure on prices. A role in reducing prices also played wide use of Internet, which enabled previously unthinkable wide price comparison. At the same time via the Internet realized internet sales, auctions and auction, which in turn puts pressure on prices. Customers and consumers are during the recent period also focused more on prices. Situations from the past where manufacturers of branded goods were able to dictate to customers the price are currently not more possible. On the market are today comparable products at a significantly lower price, and the customer has a much wider choice. To maintain profitability must companies find better ways to reduce their own costs in proportion to decreasing prices. And this at the time when most companies have already gone through several rounds of 'slimming' diets. All of this shows that the potential savings for most companies can not find in their own processes, but in the wider supply chain. It should also be borne in mind that, as we have previously described, the cost of the entire supply chain Figure 2 shows the status of inventory in the supply chain in the production of the car from the original supplier to retailer. We see that in this particular case there was a paradox that most stock is kept in the most expensive form - finished products. Although the costs of maintaining inventory from one sector and varies from company to company, the actual average cost of stockholding is rarely less than 25% of their volume. In a situation in which the automotive industry is, these costs themselves may decide the creation of profit or loss. The example above clearly illustrates the need of consider the entire supply chain. Many companies are still inclined to the assessment and evaluation of their costs within their own society. As already mentioned, in an environment where individual firms do not compete, but supply chains, it is necessary to apply a broader perspective on ways to reduce costs and prices for the final consumer. The need to apply a broader perspective in assessing costs is further underlined by the expansion of outsourcing to hedge certain activities. 43

45 More significant role of the customer The current customer is more demanding, requires top-quality product while providing comprehensive services at a high level. Goods on the market are becoming more and more difficult to distinguish its technical parameters. Therefore, the only way to reach an advantage is through an increase in the total value of the product. This can be achieved mainly by improving the quality of services provided through customer service. Customer service can be described as providing comprehensive services in time and place. In other words, a product for the customer receives value only after he gets into his hands, and in the time and place requested by the customer. Customer service can take many forms, from early delivery to ensure customer service. The fundamental role of customer service is to increase product value and therefore in the eyes of the customer to increase the price of the base product. Ability to respond to customer's request in the shortest possible time in terms of meeting the needs of just-in-time crucial for maintaining existing and gain more customers. These customers require not only a short time to meet their needs, but also require suppliers of high flexibility and increasingly customize the product to your requirements. In other words, the supplier must be able to meet specific customer requirements in less time than ever before. A key feature in this area is the ability to respond quickly to satisfy customer demand. In a rapidly changing market environment, rapid response capability even more important than it used to be taken long-term strategy in the traditional concept of business. Reliability is one of the basic requirements that customers place on suppliers. For example, the main reason why companies have safety stock is the uncertainty of future orders and the ability to deliver the desired product at a customer desired quantity and time. Significant improvement in reliability can be achieved by a comprehensive revision of the processes that affect the result of the activity. Leaders in manufacturing have long understood that the quality of products cant be increase by thorough control of finished products, but rather it is necessary to focus on the processes and ongoing management. And, this is true in the area of supply processes. The key to increase the reliability of logistics is to improve the view of the movement of materials and products throughout the supply chain. Often, can come to creation of the lack of an overview of the demand for a particular material or product. The situation becomes worse with the increasing distance of the location from supplier in demand in the supply chain. As an example, manufacturers of thin sheets have only a very limited view of the need for this material in the automotive industry. If the supply chain achieve improved overview of the state of the processes, the level of inventories and needs, reliability of the whole chain is significantly increased. Resistance to external influences in today's turbulent market environment plays an essential role. Political, economic and business environment is increasingly subject to unexpected shocks and fluctuations. Resilient supply chains around the chain will not be the lowest cost, but they are capable of dealing with most of the disruption of the business environment. A characteristic feature of resilient supply chain means recognizing and describing knowledge of the most vulnerable places. Key is the administration, organization (controlling) and management bottlenecks and supply chain relationships. The critical path in the supply chain is usually found where the passage of a chain depends on a single supplier or suppliers with long lead times. Well adjusted and maintained customer-supplier relationships in supply chains play a key role. It has already been shown that customers tend to reduce the number of suppliers. In many industries, is the use of a single source of a certain commodity or product standard practice. Businesses that use this practice, highlight 44

46 increasing of quality control, sharing, innovation, and reduce costs and simplify production planning and supply. 6 Conclusion The article deals with strategies leading to competitive advantage by reducing costs and increasing the value of the product. From the above it is clear that the long-used method to achieve gain and maintain market position, cost reduction with time, after which the product is on the market, respectively, with a growing share of the market, not under current conditions is sufficient. Management companies must look for other ways to achieve competitive advantage, especially in the area of logistics and supply chains. It is necessary to use yet neglected opportunities of the service sector of the service for customers. Productivity can increase simultaneously reducing unnecessary production and storage capacity, reducing the volume of assets and inventories. Another way is closer and more effective cooperation with suppliers. And that is dominated by wellthought-out strategy planning and logistics management and supply chain in its entirety, from providing raw materials to ensure quality services for customers and consumers. The key performance indicators of the supply chain are the cost of goods sold and inventory turnover. Structure of businesses leaving the original line management structure based on ownership interests in companies and subordinates will be more use of closely related business processes and financial links between different entities supply chains. The current competitive pressures force companies to forget the former rivalry and distrust. The requirement for speed and flexibility to meet market demands greater openness and mutual trust. Innovation of final products are still necessary in the forefront of business management at the same time on the same level gets the ability to innovate processes throughout the supply chain and their integration in order to create one tool to gain competitive advantage. References [1] CHRISTOPHER, M. Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Third Edition, Pearson Education Limited, London, ISBN: [2] GROS, I., GROSOVÁ, S. Delivery Systems, Jutta GROUP s.r.o., Přerov ISBN [3] PORTER, M. E. Competitive Strategy, The Free Press, [4] PORTER, M. E. Competitive Advantage, The Free Press, [5] PERNICA, P. Logistics Management - theory and business practice, Radix, spol. Ltd., Prague, ISBN:

47 PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN THE MILITARY OPERATIONS Aleš Komár, Miroslav Cempírek and Vladislav Vincenec Abstract: Modern Army must protect the environment both during implementation of the operation and after operations, if it does not jeopardize its success. The inclusion of environmental considerations into planning and decision-making process is the responsibility of the commander. The article covers ways of dealing with the environmental safety in the Czech military regulation and, documents in the Alliance, with an emphasis on commander s responsibility procedures in accordance with doctrines NATO. Keywords: Environmental protection, military operations, NATO EP standards, environmental responsibility. 1 Introduction Environmental issues in the conduct of military operations can have a significant impact on the targets fulfilment of the operation and the overall success of the civilian reconstruction. Commanders in the conduct of the military operations should take all practicable steps to protect the health of soldiers, civilians and the environment. In terms of command of the Army of the Czech Republic is the main scope of the environmental issues in military operations transferred to the authorities of logistics. The principle should be that the condition of environmental protection of military bases and operational area, after the termination of operations and closing bases should not be worse than the original condition. In order to achieve this objective, the commanders and the other members of the armed forces know how military operations affect the environment and know the laws, doctrines and regulations governing this area. It is the responsibility of commanders that include environmental protection in their planning processes and respect in the performance of operational tasks. Commanders must enforce environmental policies and operating practices that are environmentally friendly. The focus must be directed at a) prevention, by concentrating efforts to prevent pollution and reduce or eliminate pollution at the source, b) protection of natural resources and cultural heritage, c) compliance with laws on environmental protection and d) clearance of contaminated areas and restoration of contaminated sites. Underestimation of environmental issues may increase the risk of contamination and thus the cost of subsequent regeneration of the original condition. 46

48 2 Current State The internal regulations of the army help to fulfil the provisions generally applicable law. Environmental protection in the defence sector is pursued by number of internal rules. The most important are the rules governing the obligations of commanders and of army officials. Legislation on the environment is based on EU law that is respected in other states and armies of the Alliance. Environmental law becomes the basis of policies, doctrines, procedures and other documents of NATO. Internal regulations of the Army of the Czech Republic are focused on generally valid environmental safety conditions of military activities. Commander directs and leads not only to a combat soldier readiness, but also to observe standards of safety, fire precautions, health and the environment [1]. Unit commander shall, especially in particular implementation of combat preparations proceed in accordance with the basic order, which generally contains the basic requirements for compliance with environmental safety. They realize analysis and evaluation, always after performing the tasks in the operation, in order to evaluate and use the acquired knowledge and experience to correct identified deficiencies and use of best practices in the field of environmental protection (lesson indentified). they control the preparation of processing services plan in the period of military operations and specify the tasks directly subordinate functionaries according to environmental conditions, the environment in which the operation is complete (use of learned lesson) [2]. Elements of logistic in the field, such as technology parks field dispensaries fuels and lubricants, with a gathering of damaged equipment repair shops are usually the biggest risk of environmental pollution in field conditions during operations. 3 Responsibility of commanders and procedures to protect of the environment Damage of the environment is one of the possible negative consequences of military operations. Responsibility of each commander in the operation is set to meet the primary military task, but is hampered by many conditions. In the area of environmental protection, commanders and units involved in military operations, for example, restrict the legal provisions of the country in which operate written and unwritten conventions, local doctrines, etc. It is important that commanders in their decision-making process were able to choose correctly between the levels of performance of the principal goals and objectives of secondary operations, such as a minimum the impact of military operations on the environment. 3.1 Responsibility of commanders Commanders bear responsibility for the overall integration of environmental protection during the planning military missions and during his management activities within their jurisdiction. They must prove their ability to lead subordinates and to present the importance of environmental safety in their management activities. It must also ensure the operational planning phases, exploration and actual operation, involvement of experts in environmental safety. Responsibility of commanders for environmental protection during NATO-led military operations highlights a number of regulations. The main responsibility of NATO commanders is achieving their military tasks. Commanders at all levels should: - "Increase environmental awareness and promote the protection of environment by their subordinates; 47

49 - identify and assign clear responsibility and funding resources, for example staff and equipment to reach the targets of environmental objectives; - consider environmental impacts in decision making; - ensure compliance, if possible in the success of the mission in accordance with applicable laws and agreements on the environment; - ensure the prudent use of natural resources; - strengthen relations with neighbouring units in solving environmental problems; - incorporate the concept of pollution prevention into all military activity by promoting reuse, recycling,, best available techniques and processes substitution, improved operational efficiency and training "[3]. 3.2 Procedures for commanders Environmental protection in military operations must be organized and conducted in accordance with the valid legislation of the Czech Republic, which is consistent with EU legislation, internal regulations of the Army of the Czech Republic [1, 2, 4], STANAG agreements [3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], and standard operating procedures have devised for different types of operations. Commanders must consider the consequences of their decisions on the environment in time and consistently. First of all, needs to focus on: - protection of health and safety of soldiers and minimize the risks to the environment; - improve community relations, for example in solving waste problems; - improve environmental safety training prior to deployment; - investment in skilled workers and innovative environmental technologies; - the inclusion of issues of environmental safety into everyday activities; - search for new prevention solutions protect the environment; - shortening the logistics chain, which creates less need for convoys, reducing the threat to soldiers load and environment; - building environmentally safer and more efficient bases; - selection of stable areas suitable for new environmental troop deployment. 4 Planning for environmental protection Planning is the foundation of each operation. Protecting the environment but sometimes in some of the plans of operations, but also in normal peacekeeping troops is underestimated. Units do not realize that their negligent behaviour can endanger both at first the environment in which they operate, as well as their own health and jeopardizing the successful performance of their duties at the place of deployment. Military operations are generally characterized by phases of varying duration depending on their nature, intensity and complexity. 48

50 Level of environmental protection in % Training Mobilization Phase of deployment Operational phase Post operative phase Redeployment of troops from operation Training Figure 1: The degree of environmental protection in the phases of the operation [11] To perform the operation, it is necessary the planning, preparation, training units, reconnaissance in the area of deployment, the deployment of forces and resources, the operating performance of the task, comprehensive support deployed troops and their rotation or redeployment [10]. Environmental issues must be integrated into operational planning. The rate of inclusion of environmental considerations into operational planning will depend on the maturity of the commanders, planners and logisticians. It will, however, vary depending on the tasks performed at each stage of the operation. In some armies, such as the U.S. Army, this fact is enshrined in military regulations, as we can see in the following figure 1. As the chart shows, the greatest emphasis on environmental protection and planning is given in the initial phases of the operation including training, where they have obtained the necessary habits for the implementation of activities. Environmental security objectives must be carefully planned before operation is started. The unit must immediately upon arrival in the operating space forces begin to fulfil specified tasks. Environmental measures in the operational phase decreasing to zero but it can always be changed according to unforeseen events and the need to change the planning. Nevertheless, environmental protection is not core strategy of military tasks and stress is laid on military success. Environmental security is gaining importance towards the end of the operation, when is a necessity to carry the evaluation of the effects of operation on the environment. After that is necessary to remove the damages and return the area to its state before starting the operation. 5 Conclusion Research has shown that before and after the operation, the environmental law is fully exercised by the commanders. Success is a commander operation priority and so during the operation comes to the forefront meets the objectives of the operation. The inclusion of environmental issues in the regular training of security forces is a prerequisite for the successful fulfilment of the requirements for environmental protection in the operation. Prerequisite for rigorous safety planning environmental protection is immediately on receipt commander's intent. Commanders carry the responsibility for implementation of 49

51 environmental regulations and the implementation of appropriate procedures for the operation. Each NATO country develops knowledge in the field of environmental security in fundamental issues of environmental protection in their armed forces. A similar approach is used in the Army of the Czech Republic. Commanders carry responsibility for preparing their subordinates in the field and every soldier should be able to consult the relevant documents and norms that solve this area. Proper preparation of training helps to prevent or minimize the negative impacts of military activities on the environment. Proper training tasks and goals of the operation and the risk of damage to health and the environment will decrease. After termination of operations and closure of bases, it is necessary to conduct a survey of the environment, which revealed shortcomings and prevent further damage to the environment. The ecologization of military activities also reduces the cost of operation and compensation for damage after its completion. Higher levels of environmental security will be achieved the Army of the Czech Republic via implementations above NATO standardization agreements. References [1] MoD. Zákl-1. Basic Regulation of Armed Forces. Prague [2] MoD. Vševojsk-1-1 Responsibilities of unit s commanders of the Czechoslovak Army. Prague [3] NATO Standardization Agency (NSA). STANAG 7141 EP. Joint NATO Doctrine for Environmental Protection During NATO Led Activities. (AJEPP 4). 5th Ed. Brussels: NSA, [4] MoD. Všeob-P-5 Parks Military Techniques in the Ministry of Defence and their operation. (Military regulation). Prague [5] NATO. Standardization Agency (NSA). STANAG 7141st Joint NATO Doctrine for Environmental Protection During NATO Led Activities. (AJEPP 4). 5th Ed. Brussels: NSA, [6] NATO. Joint NATO Waste Management Requirements During NATO Military Activities. STANAG 2510th (AJEPP 5). 2nd Ed. Brussels: NATO Standardization Agency [7] NATO. Environmental Protection Best Practices for Sustainability of Military Training Areas. AJEPP 7th (STANAG 2594). NATO Standardization Agency (NSA). Ingolstadt, [8] NATO. Best Practices for Environmental Protection Military Compound in NATO Operations. AJEPP-2. (STANAG 2581). Brussels: NATO Standardization Agency (NSA) [9] NATO. Environmental Management System in NATO Operations. AJEPP-3. (STANAG 2583). Brussels: NATO Standardization Agency (NSA) [10] DoA. Environmental guidebook for military operations. USA: Department of the Army HQ, p. [11] DoD. Field Manual USA: Department of the Army HQ

52 COST EVALUATION OF THE OPERATION OF MILITARY GROUND EQUIPMENT Petr Křížek, Karel Filip, Zbyšek Korecki, Jaromír Mareš and Radka Lopourová Abstract: Efficiency of expenses during lifetime of the product is gradually getting more and more important point of view in an assessment of military ground equipment (MGE). This paper deals with analyze of many point of view related to the operation of MGE. Analysis is divided into analysis of operational costs, analysis of expected/estimated costs for general repairs and analysis of the expenses for maintenance and acquisition of the parts and consumable materials. Article deals with questions of utilization, existence or absence of relevant standards as well. Keywords: cost evaluation, operation of military equipment 1 Introduction Department of Defense (DoD) make an effort to launch launch of activity planning accordance to costs of individual activity, not pursuant to expected costs like was before However to the evaluation of mentioned activities there are missed financial standards yet. On the other hand to the evaluation of expected costs of MGE the financial standards already exist. One of the financial standard group of MGT is related to operation indicators, second of the group is engaged to expected price of general repair and third of the group is counted as a multiple of 1000 crowns to ensuring common repairs. In a third case of the group is hard to talk about that as a standard. Up to now is common to separate planning of operation costs from activities. Operation costs are intended as a complex for each cost center. [1, 2, 3]. The goal of this article is outline of a possible way how interconnect estimated costs with activities of DoD cost center [5]. 2 Financial standards to secure of the operation of military ground equipment To provision of the operation of MGE financial standards are divided into two independent groups. One of the groups is created by price of general repairs. This price was determined by calculation list of civic repair companies during period time - from 2006 to For each planned period is possible to refresh financial standards - in dependence of inflation or in context of price evaluation on the market [4]. Second group is created by estimated costs related to securing of operation and operability of military equipment. It consists of two parts [6]: - Fixed part used for an accomplishment of the prescribed tasks regardless to consumption of operational indicators accomplishment of prescribed tasks closely tied up to INA or prescribed by producer (supplier); 51

53 - Variable part related to the unit of operational indicators. Including costs linked to own use of operational military equipment, cost linked to assigned tasks prescribed by producer, supplier or imposed by law regulation. For determination of financial standards of secure operation MGE were used following criterions: - Direct operating costs come out of consumption and purchase certain material or service essential to secure operation of specific type military equipment in a period of 3 years by using data from logistics information system of (LIS) (subsystem Maintenance of the military equipment ), operational standards of a fuel consumption, including standards for lifetime of the consumable materials, operational documentation for maintenance and change of the flue and oil and etc., paper documentation registered at the military units - For determination direct costs of operation MGE there are not included acquisition costs, mandatory expenses related to ground equipment operations and service expenses (if it is not stated different way e.g. technical checks (TCh), emissions (EM), toll sticker, legal insurance, general repairs). - Parts of financial standards contained following items: o Fuel costs linked to the amount of fuel consumption during operation (km or rather Mh), price of a flue, operational standards of consumption, amount of the consumption of operational unit. o Motor oil and grease means all operational substances except for fuel. Including e.g. motor oils, lube and many kinds of protective matters. o Tires cost related to tire s changes of a particular type of equipment linked to average lifetime of a tire, o AKB cost related to the accumulator s changes linked to average lifetime. o Material acquisition to secure of maintenance means all material used during maintenance except fuel. E.g. filters, paint, lamps and other material according to technological procedure) o Service acquisition to secure of a maintenance concern to particular types of MGE, like motorcar, bus etc. where is supposed cooperation with civic service company) o Regular repairs spare-part s acquisition include purchasing costs o of spare-parts. Spare parts required for regular repairs of MTG. Regular repairs service acquisition linked to the purchasing cost of a service. Regular repairs assured by civic companies). In present time from financial standards was removed items linked to tires, because there was created new standard related to tires acquisition. Financial standards of regular repairs were determined in the past - on the basis of analysis of spare part s consumption and service consumption linked to the regular repairs in last 3 years. In consequence of analysis of this problem it was set up as casual item with different costs of repair by the same type of equipment. For planning purpose and utilization of the mentioned operation costs/expenses were set up by calculation - 30% as a part of total cost on operation of a particular type of equipment. Data actualization is realized in regular period time by logistic specialists. Including maintenance of all data in Information system of logistics (LIS). Particular data are associated to certain group of item and stock number of item. Date actualization can be accomplished for a whole group of item as well as for each item [3]. 52

54 3 GME operation cost evaluation Evaluation of operational costs of GME forms the important element of expenses monitoring process related to the MOD activities. Cost evaluation is really demanding process depended on the precise implementation of data connected to real expenses related to equipment services, equipment operation, activities of military repairs personnel and spare parts and other materiel being consumed. Workshop specialist performance and working hours have to be correctly recorded. It is not about newly acquired information but it is necessary to change the way of its recording. In the past, information was recorded only into paper documents and evaluated generally. Nowadays, data is recorded into LIS, subsystem UVT (equipment maintenance) and is summed with the total equipment cost during its whole life-cycle. GME cost operation monitoring also proceeds from the conditions of new equipment PANDUR or TATRA T-810 acquisition when resort is obliged to provide the suppliers with information related to life-cycle cost monitoring. Based on the cooperation among department of operation GME of Section of logistics MOD and Military Technical Institute of Ground Forces in Vyškov (formally one of divisions of VOP 026 Šternberk s. f.) operation indicators and other data from LIS were set in order to be able to determine life-cycle cost of PANDUR and T-810. Their definition comes from AAP 48 and its Czech version ČOS Stages and processes of systems life-cycle in NATO, see Table 1. Table 1 Summary list of focused weapon system data O. n. Data Unit Note 1. annual kilometers run over per vehicle ride [km/year] 2. annual kilometers run over per vehicle ride with cargo [Mh/ year] 3. annual kilometers run over per vehicle ride without cargo [Mh/ year] 4. Annual consumption of fuel per vehicle [l/ year] 5. Annual consumption of fuel per vehicle with cargo [l/ year] 6. Annual consumption of fuel per vehicle without cargo [l/year]] 7. Price of fuel [CZK/l] 8. Accumulator lifetime [year] 9. No data (data involved into point 5.1.6) Accumulator price [CZK/pc] 11. No data (data involved into point 5.1.8) vehicle tire lifetime [km] 13. Tire price [CZK/pc] 14. Price of other materiel per year of vehicle operation (shooting exercise included) [CZK/pc] 15. Annual number of break through projectiles being shot from armored vehicle gun [pc/year] 16. Annual number of fragmentation and explosive projectiles shot from armored vehicle gun [pc/year] 17. Annual number of training projectiles being shot from vehicle gun [pc/year] 18. Gun break through projectile price [CZK/pc] 19. Gun fragmentation and explosive projectile price [CZK/pc] 20. Gun training projectile price [CZK/pc] To be determined by producer within data export into Omega Data about change (consumed spare parts) Data about change (consumed spare parts) 53

55 21. Annual number of projectiles being shot from vehicle machine gun [pc/year] 22. Machine gun projectile average price [CZK/pc] 23. Number of smoke grenades being shot by smoke device per vehicle [pc/year] 24. Smoke grenade price [CZK/pc] 25. Annual ATGM (anti-tank a guided missile) number being shot by vehicles [pc/year] 26. ATGM price [CZK/pc] 27. No data (data involved into point ) Distance between each vehicles preventive maintenance within particular year [km] 29. Period between each vehicles preventive maintenance within particular year [time] 30. Number of spare parts x being changed per one activity within preventive maintenance per each vehicle [pc] 31. Spare parts prices being changed per one activity within preventive maintenance per each vehicle [CZK] 32. Preventive maintenance labor-intensity of each vehicle reduced by labor-intensity of spare parts change defined in vehicle logistical decomposition [Nh] 33. Average cost per 1 Nh of preventive maintenance [CZK] Prices of other materiel being consumed within one 34. activity of each vehicle preventive maintenance (% from [CZK] spare parts price) 35. Motor oil quantity within preventive maintenance [l] 36. Motor oil price within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 37. Gear oil 1 quantity within preventive maintenance [l] 38. Gear oil 1 price within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 39. Gear oil 2 quantity within preventive maintenance [l] 40. Gear oil 2 price within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 41. Oil quantity power steering within preventive maintenance [l] 42. Oil price power steering within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 43. Brake fluid quantity within preventive maintenance [l] 44. Brake fluid price within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 45. Quantity cooling liquid within preventive maintenance [l] 46. Price of cooling liquid within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 47. Additive quantity into cooling liquid for preventive maintenance [l] 48. Additive price into cooling liquid within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 49. Windshield washer liquid quantity within preventive maintenance [l] 50. Windshield washer liquid price within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 51. Quantity of coolant into air-condition within preventive maintenance [l] 52. Price of coolant into air-condition within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 53. Multipurpose lubricant quantity within preventive maintenance [kg] 54. Multipurpose lubricant price within preventive maintenance [CZK/kg] Labor-intensity per tenders, reduction out of ISL (in ISS) Labor-intensity per tenders, reduction out of ISL (in ISS) 54

56 55. Hydraulic liquid quantity within preventive maintenance [l] 56. Hydraulic liquid price within preventive maintenance [CZK/l] 57. Lubricant 1 quantity for cannon within preventive maintenance [kg] 58. Lubricant 1 price for cannon within preventive maintenance [CZK/kg] 59. Lubricant 2 quantity for cannon within preventive maintenance [kg] 60. Lubricant 2 price for cannon within preventive maintenance [CZK/kg] 61. Distances between failures of particular parts of each vehicle [km] 62. Labor-intensity of parts change per each vehicle [Nh] 63. Number of shots between failures of arm systems [pc] 64. Prices of changed spare parts [CZK] 65. Annual number of each vehicle repairs [pc] 66. Labor-intensity of each vehicle repair reduced by laborintensity of spare parts change defined in vehicle logistical decomposition [Nh] 67. Average cost per 1 Nh of repairs [CZK] 68. Prices of other materiel being consumed within one activity of each vehicle repair (% from spare parts price) [CZK] 69. Distances between failures of particular part of the 4th level of repairs of each vehicle [km] 70. Number of shots between arm systems failures [pc] 71. Particular part repair price within the 4th level of repairs of each vehicle [CZK] 72. Labor-intensity of particular part change within the 4th level of repairs of each vehicle [Nh] 73. prices of other materiel being consumed within one part change per vehicle [CZK] 74. Period until revision RE 10 of each vehicle [year] 75. Period until legal revision of each vehicle [year] 76. revision RE 10 price [CZK] 77. Legal revision price [CZK] 78. Distance until GR (general repair) per each vehicle [km] 79. GR price [CZK] 80. Average number of short-term deposition of one vehicle per year [pc] 81. Price of one short-term deposition [CZK] 82. Average number of long-term depositions per year [pc] 83. Price of one long-term deposition [CZK] Labor-intensity per tenders, reduction out of ISL (in ISS) Labor-intensity per tenders, reduction out of ISL (in ISS) Life-cycle cost monitoring has been centralized into one project OMEGA and LIS has been adjusted in an appropriate way. Changes were managed by Armaments division of MoD at first and then indicated by MGE operation department. Application has not been finished yet because of missing definition of export format which would enable to use data in other software applications for evaluation and benchmarking purposes as was guaranteed by the product supplier. In January 2010 routine operation of tenders PANDUR, DINGO, IVECO, T-810, Land Rover, modernized tank and armored vehicles (BMP) management was launched in ISL by means of internal directive of the Armaments division director. Military units 55

57 manage the above mentioned tenders in conformity with the directive (based on ISL data analysis) but with several problems. Within the period of new information systems implementation people usually do not trust the new things and collect data in an old paper format. It means for the system that spare parts which have been consumed for maintenance reasons are not involved into accounting documents. Numbers of tenders involved into old paper books of repairs are different from tender identifications within LIS. This situation results in inaccuracy and distortion of data involved in ISL. Data related to cost of KBV vehicle operation per 18 months period can be seen from table 2. Table 2 Report of maintenance and repairs being executed via own power and their price without materiel Term 2012 o. n. Repairs Maintenance Repairs Maintenance price laborintensitintensitintensity price labor- price labor- labor-intensity price , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,- 56

58 , ,- Total , , , ,- Note: equipment under o. n was delivered by the end of 2011 [6]. O. n. km P price Shots from gun Table 3 List of particular operation rates of weapon system Shots price Shots from machine guns Shots price km price Shots from gun Shots price Shots from machine guns Shots price , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,- Total , , , , , ,- 4 Conclusion To sum up the most important information it is necessary to emphasize that the more precisely data will be entered into ISL, the more precise and reliable will be the final 57

59 information. Quantity of collected data has not been increased; only approach to their collection and controlling has changed. By means of LIS quantity of partial reports related to repair activities is minimized. On the other hand development of LIS and its subsystems has to continue together with the task to connect it to other information systems for planning and accounting (FIS, APV,VP etc.) Based on the acquired data it is necessary to deal with verification of data being entered by the users. This type of data cannot be found anywhere else. LIS will be adjusted from the point of view of maintenance and repair materiel shipment in such a way that there will be only one tender number generated by LIS on each document. This is the only way how to reach complete and reliable overview of MGE operational costs. Similar way of costs monitoring is possible to be used for activity based costing. References [1] Č.j.: /2006/DP Směrnice pro používání pozemní vojenské techniky AČR v míru. Praha. GŠ AČR, [2] RMO č. 24/2010 Plánování činnosti a rozvoje v resortu Ministerstva obrany z 5. května V současné době nahrazeno RMO 66/2012. [3] OCHRANA, F. Nákladově užitkové metody ve veřejném sektoru. Praha, Ekopress, s. r. o., ISBN [4] KUNC, S. Manažerská ekonomika v podmínkách AČR. Brno ISBN [5] KUNC, S. Řízení nákladů v AČR. Vojenské rozhledy ISSN [6] KŘÍŽEK, P. Současný stav hodnocení nákladovosti provozu pozemní vojenské techniky [Written thesis for the state doctoral examination]. Brno, 2013, 42 s. 58

60 MILITARY TRAINING AREAS - PLACES WITH HIGH NATURE CONSERVATION VALUE Milota Kustrová Abstract: The term military areas covers a wide and heterogeneous range of terrains and infrastructures owned and/or used by the armed forces. Most of the military areas, and especially those used for training and testing, contain significant, even spectacular, amounts of natural and semi natural habitats and landscapes, with corresponding abundances of wildlife. Sometimes they are among the richest and most important sites for biodiversity in the country. The article deals with the description of military training areas from the nature conservation perspective, talks about the importance and nature conservation projects in military areas in some European countries. Keywords: military training area, nature conservation 1 Introduction At first view, military practice and nature conservation have little in common. But: Since military areas are less fragmented and benefit from a rather low impact of agriculture and forestry they are of utter importance to conservation. The military areas used for training and firing exercises stand out as large areas, uninterrupted by roads or built-up areas. Size is an important ecological condition for the population dynamics of many species. The French Ministry of Defence is one of the country s biggest landowners, controlling 265,000 ha, 0.5% of the total national territory. 13 military camps alone account for 40%, or 108,600 ha. The UK s Ministry of Defence owns 240,000 ha in total, 1% of total British land territory. The natural value of this estate is illustrated by the fact that it includes 190 SSSI (Sites of Special Scientific Interest, the most stringent protection level under national legislation in the UK). The Italian armed forces control a territory whose total surface is 170,100 ha, four times the surface of the nation s flagship Abruzzo National Park. This includes 331 training areas, half of which are used as firing or shooting range, and about 200 sites occupied by lighthouses and radar devices.[1] In all these areas public access is strictly forbidden, as well as any kind of exploitation, including building, agriculture and tourism development. Many rural areas have lost ecological gradients as a result of rural land consolidation programs and intensification of agriculture. These processes bypassed military areas. Many military areas have a high biodiversity because they were never used agriculturally, and so were never fertilized. A basic ecological principle is that the number of different plant species on a site increases as that site s soil and water becomes poorer in nutrients. An oligotrophic environment means that microhabitats, each with their peculiar plants and animals, stand out more clearly, whereas when soil and water become enriched with nitrogen and phosphorus (i.e. eutrophic) the ecosystem becomes more uniform and biodiversity declines. Some areas have been used only as 59

61 military areas for very long periods, during which other users were not allowed in, or much constrained in their activities. This meant no intensive agriculture, no residential building, no quarrying or mining, no hydrological changes, etc. Hence, natural processes (like river erosion and sedimentation processes, mobile dunes, accumulation of dead wood in forests) could take place untrammelled over large areas and often on intact soils. The armed forces may not originally have had the intention to preserve large tracts of natural heritage, but the fact that de facto they have done so, deserves to be acknowledged. 2 The impact of military activities on nature The general public usually considers military training areas as a devastated moonscape. This opinion is widespread especially among those who have never been to a military area, or who lack the necessary information. People are often convinced that operations in the military areas cause large-scale contamination by chemical or radioactive combat substances, fuels, destruction of vegetation and soil, killing animals or disturbance by excessive noise. These negative factors, if they do occur, usually affect only small sites within the military areas which are intensively used for training. Much larger areas of military districts, however, serve only as a buffer zone for the intensively used parts and military operations are almost never carried out here, or only irregularly and very rarely. Such extensive buffer zones are needed primarily for safety reasons. They often serve as important refuge for endangered species and communities. Human activities with negative impact on the natural environment, such as over-intensive agriculture and forestry, construction, industry and recreation, are excluded in the long term from the areas of active military operations. Moreover, the regular disruption of land cover during military operations supports the maintenance of several habitats of community interest (it often replaces the natural function of wind on drift sands). Military areas are isolated from the surrounding landscape for decades. Its biological value is several times greater than of the surrounding countryside.[2] This may sound strange, given the kind of activities commonly associated with military use. Disturbance does occur in military areas, but mostly at regular intervals, often in the same sections of the area, while the size of many military areas allows migration possibilities. Although military exercises may seem violent and spectacular, in many bases and training areas only a part of the site is used. Firing ranges for instance typically consist of long straight shooting galleries separated by broad areas of wood or heath in between. The ranges are used, but for obvious reasons there is not much traffic on them, and the swathes of nature between the firing lines are seldom if ever used for anything. Tanks and other heavy vehicles tend to be used on well-defined tracks or routes which do not change that often. Infantry exercises do range over a wider area, but their impact is often low. Paradoxically, some of the disturbance that occurs during military activities can be beneficial for conservation. Pioneer communities of fauna and flora depend upon disturbance; in nature this can be soil erosion, wildfire, flooding etc., to which certain species are adapted. In the absence of disturbance, such communities evolve into other habitats through the process of natural succession. Bombing, shelling, prescribed burning for training purposes and armoured vehicle manoeuvres can mimic these natural disturbances and create pioneer communities, or maintain them against natural succession. Thus bare sand and soil, uncommon habitats which rapidly evolve through succession but host a range of rare plants and invertebrates, are constantly created in military areas used for such exercises. Holes left 60

62 by tracked vehicles can fill with water and become pools which are ideal breeding habitat for amphibians. [1] Defence estate covers a number of sites of high ecological value, with a variety of wellpreserved habitat types ranging from long tracts of coastline and alluvial plains to high mountain peaks, heaths and scrub, wetlands and steppe grasslands in between. 3 NATURA 2000 and the military NATURA 2000 is a coherent European ecological network of protected areas that is being established within the EU Member States. The network aims to conserve the most valuable natural habitats and the most endangered species of wild fauna and flora - i.e. habitats and species of Community interest. The European Commission selects the sites from submitted proposals (National Lists) of the individual Member States and decides about their incorporation into the NATURA 2000 network. Natura 2000 is not a system of strict nature reserves where all human activities are excluded. Given that they host such important natural heritage, it is not surprising that considerable portions of the military estates in the EU scientifically qualify for inclusion in the Natura 2000 network, and have indeed been proposed (for examples: in the Netherlands 50% of the total military estate have been included into Natura 2000, in Belgium 70% was included, 45% of Danish military areas has been included into Natura 2000). The armed forces are already important stakeholders in Natura 2000 by the very fact that military areas have been proposed for the network, but they are also potential partners. Natura 2000 has much to gain from a partnership with the military owners and managers of psci (Sites of Community Importance) and SPAs (Special Protection Areas). Natura 2000 is by no means intended to be a system of totally closed reserves, and multifunctional use (including military activities) of the sites is one of the essential characteristics of the network. LIFE is the EU s financial instrument supporting environmental and nature conservation projects throughout the EU, as well as in some candidate, acceding and neighboring countries. Many LIFE projects cover more than one site. Multi-site projects often target a particular habitat type or species at national or regional level, implementing actions in a series of Natura 2000 areas where the habitat or species occurs. In several such projects, the Natura 2000 sites included military areas. Two different routes were taken: Active military participation: the military authorities became partners in the project, responsible for carrying out conservation actions on their own land. Passive military participation: the military authorities left the conservation work to the specialists, but gave permission for the NGO or agency running the LIFE-Nature project to enter the military area and do what was needed. These are multi-site LIFE projects where some sub sites are military estate and the military authorities allow the project beneficiary to do restoration work on their land, collaborating with it in planning and supervising the work. A number of LIFE-Nature projects have received technical assistance from the Armed Forces, even though not one of the sites was a military area. In these cases, the military provides manpower, machinery or specialist knowledge towards solving a challenge facing the project on the ground. Partnership projects between the military and environment authorities, co financed by LIFE, are excellent laboratories to learn to work together and gain mutual trust and a professional working relationship. Besides active military sites, there are former military sites which kept or acquired great 61

63 natural value thanks to their military status, but began losing this value after their decommitment from military use. Where the ecological value came from regular disturbance by military activities which kept creating and re-creating pioneer habitats, decommitment meant that these habitats and the species which depend on them began disappearing. Where the ecological value stemmed from a lack of disturbance because the site was closed to the public, decommitment meant an influx of visitors, or possibly even plans to commercially exploit the site. The events of 1989 and following years brought a completely new strategic environment and this has been reflected through major changes to military infrastructure in Europe. Many military bases and training areas were closed, especially in central and eastern Europe. The process is not yet ended armed forces are still restructuring themselves to become lighter and more mobile, in response to current security issues. In turn, this means that where such military use ends, there is a risk that the nature values decline. Since 2000 nature conservation & the military is a major topic at Nature Foundation David (has started 2001 in Germany with a literature research and a data collection of military areas, active and decommissioned). With different projects, military training areas in Germany as well as Central and Eastern Europe (17 countries included), which own a high value for nature conservation, were identified. All relevant information was compiled in databases. The aim of Nature Foundation David efforts are to ensure the long-term protection of conservation values in those areas already taken out of military use or those to be decommissioned soon. In cooperation with CEE web (Central and East European Working Group for the Enhancement of Biodiversity, who has started international military project with CEE network in 2006, Since 2007 they both work together), NF David try to identify military training areas in current military use or decommissioned which have a value for nature conservation. The focus was on military training areas larger than 1,000 ha. For these areas detailed information on their conservation value, occurring species, protection status etc. were collected for a database. Results of the database: 6 countries are cooperating in the project and entering data; to date 97 military areas are recorded; where of 73 sites in military use and 24 decommissioned; 40 sites are more than ha large; ranges from ha; 24 sites with protection status (NPR, Natura 2000) in all countries; 35 LIFE+ projects on MTAs in Europe, 8 in new Member States (Table 1). Table 1 LIFE+ projects on MTAs in EU new member states [3, 4] Country Full name of LIFE + project Total budget EU co financing Hungary Restoration and conservation of priority habitats and species in the Eastern Bakony area % Slovakia Establishing the background of saving the Hungarian meadow viper from extinction % Conservation of Otis tarda in Hungary % Conservation of Aquila heliaca in the Carpathian basin Restoration and management of Sand Dunes Habitats in Záhorie Military Training Area % % Restoration of wetlands at Záhorie lowland % 62

64 Latvia Marine Protected Areas in the Eastern Baltic Sea % Restoration of biological diversity in military training area and Natura2000 site Adazi % 4 LIFE Programs in the MTAs of the Slovak Republic Zahorie Military District is the oldest and largest military district in Slovakia and it presently covers the area of ha. Zahorie Military District was established in its recent area in 1950, hence before the large-scale intensification of landscape. Since that time, the entire area has been used predominantly for military purposes. Other human activities have been restricted to the services for the military area only. This very specific land use has resulted in conservation of a unique area of great natural values. Running and still waters and wetlands alternate with dry sand dunes. Chemistry of eolian dunes is extremely acidic, which is reflected in specific soil conditions and vegetation cover. Thanks to extraordinary habitat diversity, there is a high number of species and communities with different ecological requirements present here on a relatively small area. High biological diversity is given also by the location of the area being situated on the edge of the Alpine, Pannonic and Continental bio geographic regions. Forest habitats of various types ranging from fen alder woods to dry pine-oak woods cover more than 72% of the area. 18 habitats of Community Importance and 6 habitats of national importance have been recorded in the area. [5] Thanks to the unique natural richness of Zahorie Military District, parts of this area have been included in the NATURA 2000 network. At present, ten Sites of Community Importance with a total area of almost ha are located in Zahorie Military District, while proposals of other sites have been elaborated. In all Sites of Community Importance within Zahorie Military District their military use is considered as a priority. However, usually this is not in conflict with the interests of nature conservation. Zahorie has been the scene of two nature restoration and management projects, co-financed by EU-LIFE. 4.1 Project Restoration of the wetlands of Zahorie lowland The first one, lasting from 2005 to 2009, the project Restoration of the Wetlands of Zahorie Lowland (WETREST, LIFE05 NAT/SK/000112) submitted by the State Nature Conservancy of the Slovak Republic was supported under the LIFE NATURE Program of the European Commission. The main project objective was to contribute to the development of NATURA 2000 network in Zahorie Lowland through the conservation, restoration and overall enhancement of important wetland habitats and species. The following activities were carried out as a part of the project implementation: - Elaboration and implementation of Management Plans and Restoration Projects for 8 most significant wetlands - proposed Sites of Community Importance (4 of them are situated within Zahorie Military District); - Elaboration of amendments to the forest management plans so that they are in compliance with the requirements of nature conservation; - Implementation of specific restoration and management measures - restoration of the water regime of wetlands (blocking and backfilling the drainage ditches, restoration of small streams) and improvement of habitat conditions required by the most threatened plant and animal species; 63

65 - Construction of the fish by-pass on Rudava River near Veľké Leváre community in order to enable fish migration that has been obstructed by the existing weir, Restoration of species-rich lowland hay meadows along Rudava River (tree and bush cutting, mowing); - Education and training of project personnel, including excursions, seminars and work - shops for staff of partner organizations participating in the project; - Raising public awareness on wetland conservation and restoration through the project presentation in media, publishing information and education materials, organizing lectures and excursions for general public and installing information panels at the project sites. [5] All these actions dealt with sites that were not directly used for military training, but lay within the buffer zone around the exercise areas. 4.2 Project Restoration and management of sand dunes habitats in Zahorie MTA At present, the rare habitats on the shooting ranges of the Zahorie Military Training Area are threatened by overgrowing with trees, especially Scots Pine and Black Locust. Such overgrowing results in serious changes in the structure of these habitats and furthermore decreases the diversity of their unique flora and fauna. The second project does however deal directly with land used for military training and exercises. Therefore, since 2006 to 2011 the Military Technical and Testing Institute Zahorie, in cooperation with the State Nature Conservation of the Slovak Republic and the Regional Association for Nature Conservation and Sustainable Development (BROZ), implemented the project Restoration and Management of Sand Dunes Habitats in Zahorie Military Training Area (ZAHORIE SANDS, LIFE06NAT/SK/000115) [6]. The main objective of the project is to contribute to the development of the European network of protected areas NATURA 2000 in the Zahorie Military Training Area, especially through the enhanced conservation of the sand dunes and dry heaths habitats, their restoration and improvement of the living conditions for their characteristic species. [2] Project area is formed by three Sites of Community Importance (SCI Bežnisko, SCI Kotlina and SCI Šranecké piesky). All three SCIs are actively used as shooting ranges and located in Zahorie MTA. The following activities have been performed as a part of project implementation: - Elaboration and testing of new methods and approaches to the habitat management in military areas to reconcile Natura 2000 conservation requirements with their military use; - Elaboration and implementation of comprehensive Management Plans for 3 Sites of Community Importance (SCI Bežnisko, SCI Kotlina and SCI Šranecké piesky) - Implementation of specific restoration and management measures and improvement of habitat conditions for the most threatened plant and animal species at the total area almost 500 ha; - Favourable conservation status of the habitats and species of Community interest was reached at all 3 project sites; - Education and training of project personnel, including excursions, seminars and workshops for staff of partner organizations participating in the project; - Raising awareness of military personnel on nature conservation topics and improvement of cooperation between military and nature conservation institutions on nature conservation management in Zahorie MTA and other military areas in Slovakia; 64

66 - Raising public awareness on nature conservation in military areas and other project issues through project presentation in the media, publishing information and education materials, organizing lecture and excursions and installing information panels at project sites. [7, 8] 5 Conclusion There are some deep differences between the Central and Eastern Europe countries, as well as some remarkable parallelisms. Between those countries which are now members of the EU and those which are not. In the former, there is an obligation to designate Natura 2000 sites, which can include military areas, and to ensure that species and habitats from the Habitats and Birds Directives are kept in a favourable state of conservation. In the other countries, there is no such legal and enforceable obligation to designate ecologically valuable military lands as conservation areas. Only the more or less voluntary international conventions such as Bern, Bonn, Ramsar or CBD are applying here. Countries like Croatia which are candidates for EU accession are however already aligning their environmental and nature policies to the EU models, and the Council of Europe-sponsored Emerald network is in many ways parallel to Natura 2000 in its scientific concept and strategy. The transformation programs affecting all the Armed Forces of the countries mean that some training areas and other facilities have been, or will be, decommissioned, while other training areas will be modernized and the training program itself will be changed. The shift away from a conscript army means less basic training, but the target of building up a professional army implies more training, especially more advanced training. Wherever training programs are being transformed, there is an opportunity to introduce principles of ecological care into the new training schemes. Slovakia is interesting because it appears that here the obligation to designate Natura 2000 areas as a result of Slovakia s accession to the EU in May 2004, has been a powerful catalyst in bringing together environment agencies, NGOs and military authorities to starting nature conservation work on military land. In the 1990s, after the foundation of the Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic, cooperation began between military and environment authorities, mainly at a local level. An example of this was a project to restore the original hydrological regime in a section, six kilometres long, of the Rudava River, which flows through the Zahorie military training area. With Latvia and Hungary, Slovakia appears to be the CEE/SEE country where practical nature restoration and management work within military areas, and the collaboration between defence and environment authorities and NGOs, is most advanced. Thus, these three countries can act as role models and examples. References [1] GAZENBEEK, A. LIFE, Natura 2000 and the military. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities : Luxemburg, ISBN , ISSN [2] KLIMOVÁ, K. a ŠÍBL, J. Tajomný svet pieskových dún vo vojenskom obvode Záhorie. Štátna ochrana prírody SR : Banská Bystrica, str. ISBN

67 [3] HÖNTSCH, K. and JOHST, A. Military training areas of high nature conservation value in Central and Eastern Europe first analysis of database and networking process. Available on the Internet [online] [4] NATURE FOUNDATION DAVID: Nature conservation and the military in Central and South-Eastern Europe. Available on the Internet [online] < ew_total_engl_15_2012_06_28.pdf>. [5] VALACHOVIČ, D. Mokrade európskeho významu vo vojenskom obvode Záhorie. Štátna ochrana prírody SR : Banská Bystrica, str. ISBN [6] EUROPEAN COMMISSION, DG ENVIRONMENT LIFE UNITS. LIFE country factsheet Slovakia Available on the Internet [online] [7] ŠÍBL, J. a KLIMOVÁ, K.: Obnova a manažment biotopov pieskových dún vo vojenskom výcvikovom priestore Záhorie. VTSÚ, ŠOP SR a BROZ : Senica - Bratislava, str. ISBN [8] DIRECTORATE GENERAL ENVIRONMENT, UNIT E.4. LIFE: Ex-Post Evaluation of Projects and Activities Financed under the LIFE Programme Country-by-country analysis - Slovakia. July Available on the Internet [online] < uments/eval_slovakia.pdf>. 66

68 SECURITY CULTURE IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC Miroslav Mareš Abstract: The aim of this paper is a basic analysis of security culture in the Czech Republic within the general conceptual framework elaborated by James Sperling (worldview of the external environment, national identity; instrumental preferences; interaction preferences). The author focuses on important actors and ideological streams within the security debate in the Czech Republic and their perception of security culture. Four short case studies are included in this analysis. Keywords: Security culture, Czech Republic, Kosovo crisis, NATO-summit, radar base. 1 Introduction Security culture is a concept used in contemporary security studies for the analysis of security governance and security development. It refers to the a broader environment of security debates and decisions. Research on security culture in various countries was carried out [5], however, up to now not in a comprehensive form in the Czech Republic. On the other hand, many publications deal with partial issues in this research field [3,7,9]. This paper aims to a description of the basic concept and categories of security culture (elaborated by James Sperling because the concept of this author seems to be influential and suggestive within this scientific discipline) and its use for a basic analysis of the Czech situation. 2 Concept of the National Security Culture National security cultures according to Sperling provide the lens through which national authorities refract structural position of the state in the international system; it explains the subjective understanding of objective threats to national security, the instruments relied upon to meet those threats, and the preference for unilateral or multilateral action [5]. Sperling s key elements of national security cultures are described in the following table. 67

69 Worldview of the external environment National identity Instrumental Preferences Interaction Preferences Table 1: Key elements of security culture according Sperling [5]. Elite consensus on the underling dynamics of the international system, the importance and viability of state sovereignty and the definitions of security threats Extent to which national elites have retained egoist definition of national interests or broader, collective we defined against some others Hard (military, economic power) or soft instruments (international law, economic aid, normative frameworks) of statecraft and power Level of cooperation favoured by state when seeking to ameliorate a security threat (from unilateral action to multilateralism within highly formalized institutional structures). Security culture can be understood as a part of general political culture. This can be defined as follows: Political culture is the underlying set of values and beliefs about politics and the system of meaning for interpreting politics among the given population [1]. Security culture is also interconnected with general political debates in each country. Strategic culture can be identified within security culture, according to circumstances of strategic development and strategic decisions. 68 Figure 1: Dimensions of strategic, security and political culture. Source: Author 3 Security Culture and Major Czech Security Debates Czech security culture was and is determined by many external as well as internal factors. As a small country in East Central Europe the Czech Republic occupies a strategic position in the centre of the continent, where strategic interests of great powers were and are in conflict. It led to tensions between Western and Eastern orientation of the Czech external security policy as well as to clashes about allies during various historical periods (Austroslavism vs. Panslavism in the 19th century, French vs. German

70 orientation in the 1930s and Western or Soviet orientation after the World War II) [6, 9] After the fall of communism the Western orientation dominated in the Czech political debates. However, also representatives of Eastern orientation or supporters of isolationism were and are relevant participants of these debates. Within the Western oriented elites and political streams tension between orientation to the USA and to European integration can be identified. According to experts from the Institute of International Relations in Prague, four main categories of foreign-political streams can be defined. The universalists support symmetric orientation to the European integration and to trans-atlantic relations with the USA orientation, while the Europeanists and Atlanticists prefer only one of these orientations. both rejected Isolations [3] Table 2: Foreign-political streams in the CR and Euro-Atlantic development according to Drulák, Kořan and Růžička [3]. More intensive transatlantic relations Deepening of European Integration Yes No Yes Universalists Europeanists No Atlanticists Sovereignists As representatives of the universalists we can mention former Czech and Czechoslovak President Václav Havel, contemporary Minister of foreign affairs Karel Schwarzenberg or President Miloš Zeman (he has also the Russian vector ). The atlanticists are - for example Hynek Fajmon (member of the European Parliament from the Civic Democratic Party) or Petr Mach (chairman of the small The Free Citizens Party and leading personality of the think-tank Centre for Economy and Politics) and contemporary Prime Minister Petr Nečas (at least more than ten years ago as defence expert of the Civic Democratic Party). The Europeanists are among others social democratic politicians Lubomír Zaorálek and Vladimír Špidla or reform communist member of the European Parliament Miloslav Ransdorf. The isolationists are right-wing politicians Miroslav Sládek, Tomáš Vandas or populist Tomio Okamura. However, some politicians and thinkers cannot be clearly subsumed under one of the above mentioned four categories (former president Václav Klaus seems to be somewhere between the atlanticists and the isolationists, for example). An Eastern orientation to Russia is not included in the previous categorisation (see above mentioned differences between Zeman and Schwarzenberg). A partially different point of view is included in the next schema, elaborated by the author of this paper (where Russian orientation plays an important role). The orientation to the European core (mostly German politics), to the USA, to Russia and to isolationism and ideological families are important elements of this scheme. 69

71 Figure 2: Strategic vectors of the Czech foreign security policy. Source: Author. With the affiliation with atlanticism and very often also with universalism preferences for military actions under US-leadership against rogue states and terrorists are interconnected (Václav Havel profiled himself as hawk during the NATO mission in Yugoslavia in 1999 or invasion in Iraq in 2003). It is important to mention that representatives of the above mentioned categories are activists of political and/or ideological streams. They can be representatives of various governmental institutions (president, government, diplomacy) or they can influence politics from non-governmental positions (opposition parties, media, NGOs, think tanks etc.) significantly [4]. In the Czech Republic it is not possible to designate specific institutions as holders of stabile ideological positions. Standpoints of presidents or governments depend on concrete representatives in these positions. The army, police or intelligence services conduct sometimes as interest groups in their own matters, however, they are not stabile actors of ideological debates. They are loyal parts of the democratic political process in the Czech Republic and they are able to fulfil various demands of political representation. This fact can be demonstrated with the help of the following case studies. 4 First Case Study: NATO Attacks against Yugoslavia in 1999 In March 1999 the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) attacked Yugoslavia because of repressive measures of Yugoslavian government against Albanian population. The Czech Republic had been at that time only two weeks a member of the alliance. The Serbians are by Czech nationalists (including leftist nationalists) percepted as traditional Slavic allies of the Czech geopolitical struggle. The opposition against the NATO action was strong. On the other hand, a support of a large part of Czech elites for the attack and strategic responsibility of the Czech government caused the final loyal position of the official Czech policy [9,14]. Domestic political discussion about the NATO-accession was very complicated in the middle of the 1990s, mostly due to internal political discussion inside the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD). This party officially supported the entrance of the Czech Republic in the NATO, however, many members opposed this step. In 1999, the social democratic government was ruling. The governmental position towards the action against Yugoslavia was generally loyal to the NATO, however, Czech diplomacy tried to develop its own plans for the de-escalation of the crisis [13]. 70

72 Domestic political debate was characterized by tensions between the government and the leftist opposition (including the KSCM and left-radical faction within the ČSSD) on the one hand and by strong demands to a more active role in support of the NATO from middle-rightist parties and interest groups (they were represented in the initiative We are in the NATO) on the other hand. Street protests were organized mostly by right-wing and left-wing radicals, however, only with several hundreds of participants. The NATO did not demand active participation of the Czech armed forces or security corps in the operations in Yugoslavian territory. However, it required transport and flight of NATO forces over the Czech territory. Czech security forces were able to secure these tasks. In Macedonia a Czech military hospital for Albanian refugees was stationed [13].The sceptical position of some soldiers and policemen to NATO attacks was not publicly manifested. 5 Second Case Study: NATO summit in Prague 2002 In 2002 the Czech Republic hosted in Prague the summit of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. It was the first NATO summit after the 9/11 terrorist attacks against the USA. A wave of solidarity with the victims of these attacks was strong at that time and Czech politicians with the exception of extremists supported the American war on terror (the situation partially changed after the invasion in Iraq in 2003). The organisation of the NATO summit was understood as a prestigious matter for Czech policy. After the elections in 2002 a coalition government of the Czech Social Democratic Party (Prime Minister Vladimír Špidla), Christian and Democratic Union Czechoslovak People s Party (KDU-ČSL) and liberal Union of Freedom Democratic Union (US-DEU) was ruling. The main opposition party Civic Democratic Party was a strong supporter of the NATO. In such political environment the securing summit was a political priority shared by main elites of the country [8]. From parliamentary parties it was only the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia that rejected the organisation of this summit. In fact, the main reason was opposition against the NATO and anti-american orientation. However, in summer 2002 floods damaged the Czech territory. The communist argued that financial sources should be used for the reconstruction of the damaged territories, not for the organisation of this summit [15]. During the summit communists protested against the NATO, several moderate demonstrations were organized also by the anarchists. They were not able to influence the security of the participants of the summit due to massive security measures [8]. The security of the summit was an honour task also for Czech security forces. A unique common body of intelligence and law enforcement agencies was established, for example. The Czech security system was able to cooperate with the allies. A common air defence was carried out not only by the Czech air force. The US Air Force operated over the Czech territory (a special act of the Czech law was adopted for this purpose)[16]. 6 Third Case Study: US Radar Base in the Czech Republic ( ) The United States of America requested between installation of a radar constituting a part of the U.S. National Missile Defense (NMD) in the Czech Republic. It was a part of hardline Bush s doctrine. A negative attitude towards this step was declared mostly by Russia, however, also several European and Middle East countries 71

73 and non-state groups were unsatisfied with the engagement of East Central European countries in the NMD. In 2010 Obama s administration stopped this part of the NMD. [10]. Public debate was very intensive after the spring 2006 in the Czech Republic (during first years of negotiations it was a secret matter). The right-centre government (created from the ODS, the KDU-ČSL and the Greens) supported the radar. However, a strong opposition against the U.S. radar base existed within the CR, as well as at transnational level. A basic overview of public debate is included in the following table. Groupings Arguments Modes of action Table3. Public debate about US radar in the Czech Republic. Source:[10] Opponents Supporters Social democrats (majority), Conservatives, liberals, christian Initiative Ne základnám! (No democrats (contemporary Bases!), coalition of leftist governmental parties); (including communist), human Unclear was attitude of the greens. rights, environmentalist and Government (Premier Minister Islamic organizations; Mirek Topolánek) had generally a further anarchists, far right problematic support in the spectrum; Parliament The base is a part of dangerous expansionism of the current U.S. administration The base increases the risk of a missile and/or terrorist attack on the Czech territory. The base harms national sovereignty (parallels with Nazi occupation and with the Soviet occupation ). Protection of the USA without the protection of the CR itself is unacceptable BMDS is inefficient. Opposition in Parliament, demonstrations, internet agitation, newspaper agitation, limited time on TV Small part - discussions about violent resistance (including guerilla). Demand: a referendum The base is a part of defense of western democratic values. The base must be protected by the US military forces and this is a strategic advantage for Czech security. Potential risks should be taken as a result of US help to the Czechs in WW I, WW II, Cold War and during the entrance-process to the NATO. Economical Benefits. The base has indirect influence on the possibility of the U. S. visa-free regime for Czech citizens Executive power, TV agitation, newspaper agitation, rejection of a referendum Czech armed forces cooperated loyally with the US allies. The radar should have been stationed in the military site in Jince. The Czech army and Military police were able to secure this area. Czech intelligence services monitored espionage activities in relation to the radar installation as well as the Russian support to the anti-radar movement. Security 72

74 Information Service (BIS) wrote: Russian services attempted to establish contacts with public opinion-makers, political circles and the media and infiltrate organizations influencing public opinion to win them over for supporting Russian interests in debates on the issue of locating an American radar in the Czech Republic [2]. American withdrawal from the project was respected. 7 Fourth Case Study: EU Operation in Mali 2013 In 2013 the French Army carried out a successful operation against Islamist non-state militant groups in Mali. The EU decided on the creation of the European Union Training Mission to Mali. The Czech right-centrist government of the ODS (with Prime Minister Petr Nečas from this party), Christian-democratic party TOP 09 and liberal party LIDEM joined this mission. After domestic political negotiations also the major part of social democratic opposition sustained this mission [11]. For the Czech government the mission is also an instrument how to keep impact on Common security and defense policy of the EU [12]. It was the reason why some Eurosceptic politicians supported the mission. Countering Islamism and US engagement in Mali were important arguments, too. A large part of social democrats were loyal to the EU. On the other hand, some social democrats, regional populists and communists rejected this mission as a part of militarization of the EU and because of financial costs of this mission [11]. The Czech army was able to create a small contingent of 34 soldiers without problems. Despite the fact that Africa is not the most important region of Czech interest, several military observers and small groups in various missions served in this continent in previous years. Czech intelligence community started sharing information with friendly services. In preparation of this mission an important role was played by the Ministry of foreign affairs [11] and this fact confirmed understanding for this mission as a diplomatic instrument. 8 Conclusion As demonstrated in this paper, majority of Czech elites support the pro-western orientation and the NATO and EU operations. Communists declare hostility against this orientation, however, they do not have coalition potential currently. Close relations of major Czech elites with the USA were demonstrated during negations about the US radar in the CR during the past decade, on the other hand, there existed a strong opposition against this radar. Threats to state sovereignty are perceived in a broader context, together with interests of the allies (mostly the USA and several western European countries). Individual preferences are sometimes not enforced (on behalf of common NATO-interests), as the Czech policy during Kosovo crisis showed. Czech elites interconnected with American hawk are able to support the use of hard military power, however, also economic aid and supporting human rights are important elements of Czech statecraft. Preference for international cooperation in military matters is significant, including operations in domestic territory (as was demonstrated with the engagement of the USAF during the NATO-summit in 2002). Different perception of the NATO and the EU is typical of the debate among Czech elites, however, the operations of the NATO as well as the EU are supported if it is necessary (as the operation in Mali in 2013). Opponents of the out of area operations frequently use the argument about high financial costs of such missions. Transatlantic accent, cooperation with the NATO and the EU and support of military operations against enemies of the 73

75 Western world are the most significant elements of recent major Czech strategic culture. The army and security corps are loyal parts of the security system, not individual actors of major political debates with ideological or geopolitical statements. Acknowledgements: This contribution was prepared as part of the research project Methods of Predicting Long-term Geopolitical Development in Central Europe - VF , funded by the Ministry of Interior of the Czech Republic 74 References [1] BARRINGTON, Lowell, BOSIA, Michael J., BRUHN, Kathleen, GIAMO, Susan and MC HENRY, Jr., Dean E. Comparative Politics. Structures and Choices. Boston: Wadsworth. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp. ISBN [2] BEZPEČNOSTNÍ INFORMAČNÍ SLUŽBA. Annual Report of the Security Information Service for 2007 [online] [vid. 15. března 2013]. Available from: < [3] DRULÁK, Petr, KOŘAN, Michal a RŮŽIČKA, Jan. Außenpolitik in Ostmitteleuropa. Von Universalisten, Atlantiker, Europäern und Souveränisten. Osteuropa, (58), 7, pp ISSN [4] DRULÁKOVÁ, Radka a DRULÁK, Petr. Tvorba a analýzy zahraniční politiky. Vysoká škola ekonomická v Praze, Nakladatelství Oeconomica, Praha, pp. ISBN [5] SPERLING, James. National security cultures, technologies of public goods supply and security governance. In KIRCHNER, Emil J. - SPERLING, James (ed.). National Security Cultures. Patterns of Global Governance. Routledge, London 2010, pp ISBN [6] KREJČÍ, Oskar. Geopolitics in Central European Region. The view from Prague and Bratislava. Prague: Profesional Publishing pp. ISBN [7] KŘÍŽ, Zdeněk and MAREŠ, Miroslav. Security System Transformation in the Czech Republic. Policy Affairs, 20, (3), 2011, pp ISSN [8] MAREŠ, Miroslav. Členství ČR v NATO z hlediska hrozeb extremismu a terorismu. In HLOUŠEK, Vít a Zbyněk PAVLAČIK. Pět let v NATO. Vojenské, politické a společenské aspekty členství ČR v NATO. Masarykova univerzita v Brně, Brno pp , ISBN [9] MAREŠ, Miroslav. Polityka zagraniczna i bezpieczeństwa Republiki Czeskiej. In ALBIN, Bernard a Walenty BALUG. Republika Czeska. Wydzial Nauk Spolecznych Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego. Wroclaw, pp , ISBN [10] MAREŠ, Miroslav. Radar base of the United States National Missile Defense in the Czech Republic. San Diego. University of California Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation. Presentation (Author s Archive). [11] NATOAKTUAL.CZ. Čeští vojáci vyrazí do afrického Mali. Co zaznělo o misi v Senátu? [online] [vid. 15. března 2013], available from /na_zpravy.aspx?c=a130313_203449_na_zpravy_m00

76 [12] Parlament České republiky. Poslanecká sněmovna. Sněmovní tisk 920/0, část č. 1/10 Vl.n.působ.sil MO ve výcvik.misi EU v Malij.rep. (EUTM Mali) [online] [vid. 15. března 2013]. available from: < [13] RHODES, Matthew.Czech Malaise and Europe. Problems of Post-Communism, (47), 2, ISSN [14] WEICHSEL, Volker. Tschechien. Nationalpolitische Traditionen und integrationspolitische Konzepte. LIT Verlag, Berlin. 273 pp. ISBN [15] WORLD INTERNATIONAL DEPARTMENT. Czech Communists call for cancellation of Prague NATO summit [online].. People s World, 2002 [vid. 15. března 2013], available at < [16] Zákon č. 482/2002 Sb., o posílení ochrany vzdušného prostoru České republiky v době konání summitu Organizace Severoatlantické smlouvy v Praze a o změně trestního zákona. 75

77 MODELING APPROACH TO THE SPECIFIC TACTICAL ACTIVITIES Jan Mazal, Miroslav Mašlej, Petr Stodola and Ivana Mokrá Abstract: The contribution deals with current or potential approaches to the modeling and optimization of tactical activities. This issue takes on importance in recent times, particularly with the increasing trend of digitized battlefield, the development of C4ISR systems and intention to streamline the command and control process at the lowest levels of command. From fundamental and philosophically point of view, this new approaches seek to significantly upgrade and enhance the decision-making process of the tactical commanders. Keywords: Computer decision support, C4ISTAR, ISR, DSS, OTT. 1 Introduction One of the most important capabilities of the Armed forces is the ability to decision. Decision-making has to be supported by the processes and technologies. The military is important area of social theory and practice, were modeling and simulation have been used for centuries. Computer support of military applications and processes is not exceptional by these days, however its domain still falls within the areas outside of the direct decision support of the commanders in combat operations. The first attempts to mathematically modelate the complex battle situations to support the decision-making processes of the commanders started in the 1960s. The original math models was based on a very general assumptions and tried to build the rationality of the behavior of the selected tactical element in the very approximate terms. These models were appropriate as doctrinal approaches, but for the implementation of individual tactical solution or as direct support to the tactical decision-making activities were not applicable. Modeling and simulation performed important cognitive and practical function in military history. Its emergence and development form an integral part of military history and continuous development of all its important components. For a long time, the military modeling and simulation had a applied character, mainly in the commanders decision, prediction and planning in combat operations, it plays decisive role in immediate decision search in asymmetric warfare and war against terrorism. Decision making is one of the most important activities, which a Manager or person generally do in their everyday life. Decision-making is always a choice between two or more options. Decision process in military environment is similar to its civil equivalent, but with different inputs, outcomes and consequences. Same as in civil management, military commanders are forced to choose optimal solution based on proper weighting of multi-criteria requirements. 76

78 In a military decision-making practice it stands out in the foreground more than in the civil sector, mainly such factors as the time (speed of decision making), the issue of available material resources, unfamiliar environment (terrain, enemy, population), and particularly the factor of possible loss of life and technology. The commander is often forced to make decisions quickly based on their experience with the mentioned conditions. We are talking about empirical-intuitive decisionmaking process. Under these assumptions, it seems logical to facilitate decision-making by a modeling support 2 The system approach The system concept of computer support of tactical decision, from fundamental point of view, is possible to split into two approaches, namely: - Subjective - empirical and intuitive; - Objective - mathematical and algorithmic. For effective tactical decision making, it is necessary to keep the coexistence of these approaches in the balanced synergy conjunction and complementarity in such a proportion that fulfils the type of the decision-making problem. From the perspective of computer support and automation of decision-making activities, it is currently possible to provide a part of the decision-making process with the aid of machines and even though the trend of automation constantly growing, so far there is no indication that the human element should be fully excluded from the advanced decision-making processes in the near future. In any case, the impact of the automation to the effectiveness and to the time required for the key decision development is absolutely vital, as indicate the last experiences from the war in Afghanistan. Until now, the decision-making process of the commander was usually conducted in terms of empirical experience and intuition and most likely it will remain identical in the near future. Already in the 60s in the last century, there appeared a tendency to model specific operational and tactical processes [1]. The initial math models have suffered from serious deficiencies relating to a complex data base of the battlefield. The models were unable to deal with a wide range of information cover, what is the key of the operational and tactical decision-making processes. Furthermore, in many cases, models were based on very approximate assumptions suffering from an information deficit and the solution could not lead to a rational result applicable in practice in any case. Computer support within algorithmic approach is still a relatively new element which, though some initial attempts of its "start-up" done in the past, is still on the beginning and probably it takes some time to accommodate this approach in the decision-making process of the commanders on the tactical level. Major upgrade of a new approach comparing a previous solutions consist in: - comprehensive concept of the operational environment; - detailed real-time virtualization; - advanced extrapolation of its operational attributes (status) in a wide range of conditions; - subsequent series of operational and tactical analyses, integrated into solutions that respect the multi-criteria priorities. Leading position on that field still keeps the US military. US introduced the revolutionary operational and tactical approach called the Deep Green concept in 2008 [2]. Deep Green concept is inspired by a Deep Blue supercomputer (1997) and is 77

79 focused on advanced operational and tactical tasks dedicated to the ground forces of 21st century. This concept is solved through the DARPA Agency (Defence Advanced Research Project Agency) and its philosophical and componentary scheme is shown on the following figure (1). Computer support of this approach is splited in two ways: Algorithmic - having an impact on the development of theoretical algorithmic solutions and also affecting the software for particular computing platforms. This approach includes the fundamental math solution and its adaptation and optimization for machine processing 78 Figure 1: The DEEP GREEN concept referred by DARPA Source: 3 Operational and tactical tasks On many fields, particularly in technical and technological base is already usual the state, that the large spectrum of processes can be not only virtually modeled but also solved in inverse manner with specified requirements. In many cases it is possible to achieve such precision that correspond with the real tests for more than 90 percent (statics, aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and so on). This is caused by a small degree of uncertainty of the model, which unfortunately appears in a high degree in the socioeconomic area particularly in the operational and tactical environment. Therefore it is extremely difficult to model the combat activities progress with an accuracy of technological processes; however, it is possible to model the conditions of certain tactical scenario and through the optimization of these conditions to use the results as an issue for the selection of particular option or activities. There are two approaches of the operational tactical tasks solution, in particular those, which fulfill the criteria of the so-called inverse task: - Analytical- it allows formulating the solution of inverse task by mathematical expression (for example by polynomial). In the area of operational and tactical tasks it is usually very difficult to find such a solution, and the way-out is the evolutionary solution; - Evolutionary - it is approach (using brute force), where the solution is based on the search through a broad spectrum of possible iteration assessment or all possible input sets. As a model example on that field can serve for example the square root calculation, where the accurate solution is based on iterative algorithm.

80 As already indicated above, usually in the area of complex operational tactical tasks dominate the evolutionary approaches, since finding a direct analytical solution is either very difficult or does not exist. Furthermore, it should be noted that, in the case of operational and tactical solutions, it is usually a multi-criteria problem, where just the settings of the entry criteria can be quite a complex task by itself. There plays the key role the individual approach (opinion) linked with the pragmatic (tactical) aspect of the solutions. Like the classic examples of operational-tactical tasks, may serve the search for the optimal location of shooting position. Figure 2: 2D Strike model (reciprocal hyperbolic), constructed with the probability target hit function (hyperbolic) and probability function of the friendly element endanger (logarithmic). Source: authors In the construction of the model, it is possible to implement deductive approach and is it possible to issue from the assumption of the likelihood compromise of intervention of the target and acceptable risk of friendly element in the context of the implementation of the attack. It is demonstrated in the figure 2, where the function of 2tactical pragmatism of the fire depends just on the distance to the target. However, the model in real conditions is linked to additional criteria and inputs, such as the enemy and friendly element altitude difference, distance from the nearest vegetation, position of the Sun, type of the weapons, level of the training and so on. In the case that we assume the second parameter as the angle between the source and the target element, then the construction of the model can look like follows formula (1): x the distance to target (0,1500) y the horizontal angle between the friendly and enemy element (-80,80) (1) 79

81 Figure 3: Model of the shooter location pragmatic function Source: authors In general, it is relatively complex task, where each additional input increase the dimension of the model, so another approximate model represents the formula (2) and Figure 3, there are considered 3 inputs (n1, n2, n3) in this case, where this calculation must be applied to any combination of the deployment configuration of individual elements (the shooter and target) on a digital model of the battlefield to find the optimal solution. n1 the distance from the nearest vegetation n2 the difference of the excess of friendly and enemy element n3 the distance to target (2) 80 Figure 4: 3D cut of the model of the shooter location pragmatic aspect function Source: authors 4 Integration of the geographical and operational analyses The field of computational area analyses has been only the domain of geographical resort in the past, within the fact that the isolated analysis (visibility, throughput, mobility, and so on) were not comprehensively integrated. This limited spectrum of pragmatic results was not sufficient enough to fulfill the contemporary military requirements and latest advances in the information technology. Modern approach to the tactical decision support usually combines various analyses with geo-tactical background. In real operation the tactical activities are very closely linked to

82 geographical factors, this synergy is apparent and could be utilized in favor of the pragmatic aspects of the tactical solution. One of the most critical phases is appropriate input factors selection. If the incorrect settings of these factors will be applied, however, the result exists, the final solution may not be applicable to the practice. The final solution is completed through the system integration of partial solutions that define the theory and algorithmic principles, system approach define the construction and partial solution or analyses processing. The mentioned system integration would be treated as an integration process in the context of multi-criteria decision concept of partial solutions that can be divided into three basic modules: - Math module, carrying out the exact operations over data structures; - Multi-objective module containing the entry set of commander/operator requirements; - Module of input quantifying factors and criteria interpretation. 4.1 Approach to the maneuver optimization The fundamental approach is based on a sequence of procedures and the weighted integration of discrete layers, where all phases converge to a maneuver optimization issued from a modified versions of Floyd-Warshall algorithm. Initial C++ application was designed for a basic experiments, providing relatively fast solution (derived from path-finding algorithms used in autonomous systems), whose task was to verify theoretical approach and the time profile of solution. Designed application would deal with that job under all conditions. The application allows users to build the customized tactical model to calculate the optimal route for specific geo-tactical conditions, including stability analyses. If it is necessary, application could find alternative routes with more-favorable movement factor. Following chart presents an idea of theoretical approach fig.5: Figure 5: Theoretical approach to the model construction and processing Source: authors Fundamental theoretical approach in that case was inspired by Floyd-Warshall algorithm. Original algorithm was pushed throughout several modifications that make it computationally applicable even for a large data structures comprising more than 106 nodes. Basic adjustment lay in elimination of so-called reverse cycles by stopping the 81

83 calculation on all nodes in its root. Generally it is not trivial task and it can be accessed in several ways, where, as one of the possible solution is the introduction of the socalled genetic structure processing, where each element of a sequence of progressive calculation shall be borne by the information about the elements of its predecessors, for example, in the shape of the bit-field, where the individual bits encode the occurrence of the given attribute. Within the fact, that modification of the next element (node) copies the genetic information of a predecessor, including its contribution to the new element. This process is carried out through the main field elements chosen for next phase solution. The status and verification cycle matches the bit position in the bit field with the position of the active element in the default structure. If the element belongs to a root what was modified (attribute is present), the element is excluded from the processing in the following iterative phase because it will be modified in the next steps. This process is theoretically simple, however, the realization of this step is relatively difficult in practice, because the memory performance Pn achieves: N is the number of nodes (elements) of the graph. It means that models which contain more than 106 nodes must allocate over 125 GB memory only for genetic structure of each element. In the case of information transfer into other elements the amount of operations raise to a level that is incompatible neither with the real time application, nor on the fastest nowadays computers. It is therefore necessary to address the sub-problem in a different way and optimize the whole process by other approach. Previously mentioned idea works well but for a wide set of nodes (more than 106) is ineffective. There is a several optimization approach that could bring some benefits. For example the first, optimization principle is focused on a separate iterative sub-loop, which looks for a so called back-cycles and processes on limited set of nodes. It eliminates non-perspective iterations (this is the key point) and shorten the solution time significantly. It searches the smallest sum of weights in a graph, but only on a subset of already modified elements and, in the meantime, until any of all possible elements is unable to modify. Using this optimization trick, it is possible to reduce timing of solution from 70 hours to 90 milliseconds (this case is linked to a 106 nodes and 8*106 edges of a graph) what seems to be a really significant improvement. Another important aspect of mentioned solution is particular ability of parallel execution of the sub-phase processes and potential of implementation on GPGPU (General Purpose Graphics Processing Unit). In that case, there is the general problem of no possibility of total avoidance of particular phase s serialization. Because of dependency of particular iteration steps on previous result, nevertheless process solution of each phase is possible to parallelize. Contemporary concept of GPGPU parallel programming suffer by a small complication of global memory access (because of wide array of element it is not possible to store them in a fast shared memory) of particular threads what is resulting in reduced performance as it would actually be. 4.2 Tactical and geographical factors The initial approach to the factors integration is treated in approximate scenario, where the input factors were derived from the following effects: - The influence of altitude; - The effect of vegetation (forest); - The influence of water; - The impact of communications; 82 (3)

84 - The impact of general terrain; - The effect of visibility of threatening element. Filling the input data structure is crucially important and more comprehensive research and experiments are needed. To generate pragmatic results in military operation, it is necessary to sensitively design the input structure of graph weights. It must properly correspond with provable statistical analyses of wide spectra of experiments. Just for demonstration purposes and integration process evaluation was intuitively estimated the values linked to a set of important factors, derived from the previous research, partially dedicated to that problematic [2] and [3]. The result of a core calculations, model integration, data modeling, visibility analyses and shortest path algorithm implementation is shown on the following figure 6: Figure 6: Optimal maneuver modeling under tactical conditions Source: authors Where the obvious desire of motion is situated close to a communications and avoids visible area as is illustrated, were threatening visibility laid out had a decisive impact on final weighted criteria displacement of the model. At the next illustration is shown the shadow map, what demonstrate the total sum of weights of the minimum path to the each point of the map under the mentioned conditions. There is apparent a manifest of the complications in the areas of visibility of the threatening element and the minimum values of threatening the overall paths along the roads. Result is presented on following picture: Figure 7: Structure of final Pragmatic graph (minimum of weighted sum dedicated to the shortest path) Source: authors 83

85 5 Modelling and digitizing of the battlefield The relevant results achievement in the framework of the battlefield modeling lay in the deployment of high level complexity and relations, which previous models did not implement. This condition could be achieved by implementation of the same or higher information view (scope) of the commander addressing the tactical problem. This circumstance is currently simply achievable by C4ISR utilization. To resolve this issue it is necessary to realize the goal of the entire tactical modeling process and the context of the command and control. If we come from the fundamental nature of the army and its dedication to the martial activity, then the decision of commanders usually follow the search for an optimal tactical activity, or the sequence of activities leading to assigned tasks competition in the shortest (possibly fixed) time and with a minimum released effort or resources. So in other words, the main aim is such a sequence of tactical elements (maneuver, fire and strike) subordinated units/troops which will lead to the most effective task fulfillment. To resolve this issue, it is possible to partially take inspiration from the game of chess as well as the military leaders did in the past. Mainly from the basic model of the playing field and the rules for the individual elements, it can serve as an approximate raster scenario for the tactical battleground modeling, where the model adapted to the current conditions will be incomparably greater complexity and must take into account all relevant factors affecting the combat activities. Despite the fact that the current modeling of the combat is from the philosophical perspective relatively highly theoretical matter, it is intuitively clear that the chances of a successful application of these models can be in case of fulfilling the appropriate complexity, very high. Solutions to the particular problems are based on a set of individual approaches and could not be unified. The overall concept should be understood as a comprehensive issue, rather than an isolated problem. Currently, there is no universal solution capable of addressing more various tactical tasks, and it is necessary to find adequate (separate) solutions to each problem. The way of individual problem solution usually comes from the weighted integration of tactical analysis linked to the quantification and multi criteria decision making. A general approach to the battlefield modeling can be compared with the large 3D matrix (set) of particular math and tactical models. As an example solution may serve the ambush area optimization, illustrated on Figure 6, where the red circles represent the extrapolated positions of the opponent and the pink circles indicates the position of friendly elements. Increasing diameter of the pink circles indicates the position relating to the particular position of the opponent indexed in this case, from top to bottom. So, the center of the red circle on the top position is related to the center of the pink circle with the smallest diameter and the center of the red circle on the lowest position correspond with the center of the pink circle with the largest diameter. The optimal maneuver of each element is depicted from the default position for optimal action. 84

86 Figure 8: Ambush area optimization (SW University of defence) Source: authors 6 Conclusions The latest military trends are setting the demanding requirements to the contemporary operations. The focus is laid on the quality and proper integration of underlay analyses, necessary for the effective decision process execution. These trends are apparent since the year 2002 and escalating in the context of building the new approach to the decision making activities of the commanders. In context of information technology development and increasing demands on combat information systems as for instance C4ISTAR, what slowly reach its technological edge, the next way of tactical and technological future of 21-st century battlefield are turning to model based tactical decision support. This problematic consist of wide set of operational and tactical problems, generally reaching side of multi-criteria decision tasks and in most cases converge to tactical battle and non-battle process optimization. The construction of models of decision-making processes and their solution is motivated by intentions to limit the intuitive decision-making and eliminate the negative consequences of subjective problem-solving procedure. Optimization of operational and tactical activities, though this is not apparent at the first glance, is linked to the pragmatic aspects and algorithmic scheme, enabling their advanced automation. The solutions are not usually the trivial and the results are necessary to analyze in terms of its stability and assess its pragmatic level. However, this innovative approach has pushed a previous static concept of information distribution to a new dimension and provides a powerful tool in the planning and combat operation management process. This concept also creates the key conditions for the effective integration of automated and robotized systems into the combat operations. References [1] BUEHLER, M., IAGNEMMA, K., SINGH, S. (Eds.). The DARPA Urban Challenge: Autonomous Vehicles in City Traffic. Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics, vol. 56. USA: Springer, p ISBN [2] RYBANSKÝ, M., VALA, M. Geographic Conditions of Military Transport Using Roads and Terrain. International conference on military technologies (ICMT 2009). Brno, ISBN p [3] RYBANSKÝ, M., VALA, M. Analysis of relief impact on transport during crisis situations. Moravian Geographical Reports, vol. 17, no. 3, pp ISSN

87 [4] RYBÁR, M. a kolektiv. 2000, Modelovanie a simulácia vo vojenstve. Bratislava: MO SR. ISBN [5] STODOLA, P., MAZAL, J., RYBANSKÝ, M. Dead Reckoning Navigation for Autonomous Unmanned Ground Vehicles in a Real Terrain. In: Proceedings of the Joint 9th Asia-Pacific ISTVS Conference. Sapporo, Japan, p. 10. [6] STODOLA, P., MAZAL, J. Optimal Path-finding Algorithm for Autonomous Unmanned Ground Vehicles. International Unmanned Vehicles Workshop (UVW2010). Istanbul: Turkish Air Force Academy, p. 6. [7] SURDU, John R., COL, Deep Green Broad Agency Announcement No Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), Information Processing Technology Office (IPTO), Website: 86

88 COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION ON THE ENEMY S SITUATION AS PART OF THE COMMON OPERATIONAL PICTURE Jan Nohel Abstract: The aim of the article is to describe information support of the command and control process in the form of the intelligence process regarding the enemy s operation on the battlefield and the methods of its use for creating the Common Operational Picture. The methods of information support of the decision-making process have been described with regard to the conditions of current asymmetric operations. In conclusion the article deals with the possibilities of providing information support which will lead to more efficient creation of the commander s situational awareness on the battlefield depending on the volume, character and necessity of the processed data topicality with clearly comprehensible output. Keywords: command and control information support, information collection, common operational picture. 1 Introduction The tasks fulfilled by the ACR units in foreign operations range from special forces offensive actions up to supporting humanitarian projects with civilian participation. The identification of the enemy in these operations is difficult as he takes advantage of hiding among the local population to camouflage his activities. He tries to take full advantage of his strengths and coalition forces weaknesses using the asymmetric method to conduct combat operations. The asymmetric method of the conduct of combat operations means the threat to armed forces and government authorities operating in a distressed area, usually connected with feasible and frequent use of unusual means and methods of combat operations. These enable the elimination of high technological predominance and superiority in numbers of the coalition forces and the utilization of their weaknesses for the achievement of often considerable and surprising success by paramilitary forces [8]. The asymmetric threat may be based namely on the enemy s specific methods of operation, often criminal ones, which are aimed at terrorist attacks conducted not only against military targets. It may resemble unconventional methods of combat which the enemy uses to confront qualitative and quantitative superiority of the coalition forces, e.g. suicide bombing attacks and the use of improvised explosive devices (IED). A weaker enemy applies conventional methods of combat to prevent the coalition forces from using their forces and technological potential and to inflict maximum losses on them. These are e.g. the use of snipers, sudden attacks performed by small armed groups, shelling, etc. The effective performance of tasks in such an environment requires the commander s (staff s) complex situational awareness of the battlefield to be able to adopt qualified decisions leading to the attainment of operation objectives. For this it is necessary to 87

89 provide the collection and processing of large quantity of updated data and information from the whole spectrum of action. The summarization of acquired facts into one output will facilitate fast orientation in the situation on the battlefield and the estimate of mutual influences of environmental factors. Through the performed orientation the commander is able to determine where he occurs, what the final condition he wants to achieve is and to realize the method for the achievement of the required final condition. The commander (staff) is able to compare the development of the enemy s situation and the civil environment in the past and to estimate their future goals using the continuous upgrading of information inputs. This will help him react to an unexpected attack of the enemy or to the change in the civil population behaviour and thus to make the entire command and control process more effective. 2 Command and control information support Information support is a process (a set of information activities) supporting informationcontrol, decision-making and cognitive processes [9]. It contains information search, processing, transfer and distribution or archiving processes. Command and control information support represents the process which supports commanders for whom it creates the picture on the current state of performed operations. On its basis they may issue instructions required for the accomplishment of the operation objective. The information support of commanders at the command and control tactical level is focused namely on the so-called task variables, which are the aspects of the situation in the area of operation directly affecting the success of task accomplishment. 2.1 Characteristic of information on task variables The task variables [6] at the command and control tactical level are determined by a specific task and relate to a specified area, time, friendly forces and equipment, the composition and operation of the enemy and civil influences. The task variables are divided into six information areas as follows: The first area includes the information on the unit task in the superior s formation and its roles in the operation. It also contains limitation for the independent task performance (among others e.g. rules of weapon use, arriving at checkpoints). The second area contains the information on the enemy which describes dangerous areas of action and the presence of the enemy. The information which every commander needs to know relates to: deployment, unit strength and composition of the enemy in the area of manoeuvre, his armament, range of fire and optical visibility from the enemy s area of deployment, combat operation of the enemy of in the past (date, time, place, strength and type of attacks), periodical attacks of improvised explosive systems (date, time, place, type, the situation in the vicinity) and location of minefields. The third area is formed by the information on the effect of the terrain and natural phenomena on the manoeuvre of subordinated forces and equipment. This acquired information will specify under which conditions the terrain will be passable. The stress in this area of geographic and hydrometeorological characteristics is laid on the following: relief of the terrain and obstacles (vegetation, trafficability, water passability, weather effect on the trafficability of the terrain and communications, traffic capacity of the area (network of communications and structures on communications over land with the following parameters: surface, length, width, bearing capacity), observation possibilities, key areas, potential approaches. The fourth area contains the information on friendly forces and equipment. It represents the capabilities of friendly forces and equipment. It includes the following: 88

90 parameters of friendly vehicles, deployment/operation of friendly/allied units in the area of operation, deployment of friendly or allied bases and police stations, optical and radio visibility from a certain point in the area of operations depending on the terrain, effective range of friendly unit weapons, the representation of the effective range of supporting weapons in manoeuvre. The fifth area includes the available time calculation required for unit commander s planning, unit preparation, subordinates planning and preparation and control of readiness. The sixth area contains the information on the civil environment influences. It means namely the relationship of the local population to the presence of coalition forces, their composition, organizations and associations, personality features of the local population, significant events and holidays, significant structures and their ability to affect our forces and equipment. The entire planning and decision-making process of commanders and staffs in the ACR foreign operations takes 1 to 2 days depending on the type of operations and external factors. In the case of a crisis situation, such as e.g. the attack on a unit and the communication with the superior is lost and the unit commander has to decide himself at the place within the shortest possible time, the decision-making process shouldn t take more than 10 minutes. Out of the task variables the situation of the enemy is the most critical area owing to the complicated estimate of the future operation variant. In all the other areas there is either complete information coverage (task and condition of friendly forces and equipment), relatively constant conditions (character of the terrain) or predictable conditions on a long-term basis (weather forecast and assumptions of the civil environment). For this reason mainly information management and consequent understanding of the enemy s situation will be dealt with in the next part of the text. 2.2 Characteristic of Information Current and accurate information on the enemy s operation and composition is the basis for the complex information support of the command and control process for the reason of necessary situational awareness of the battlefield on a real-time basis. In the course of the planning process as well as the task performance the commander has to know and understand the current state and development of the enemy s situation on the battlefield. On the basis of the current situational awareness and the long-term development of the enemy s situation in the area of operations the commander is capable of anticipating most of the risks and threats in the future and responding to them in advance effectively. The information processed on the basis of a large amount of input data from all available sources is a characteristic element of command and control information support in the environment with the asymmetric manner of conducting combat operations by the enemy. The summarization of this information represents the situation display of the battlefield, on the basis of which all the planning and decision-making activities regarding the manoeuvre of units fulfilling the tasks in the area of operations take place. 3 Intelligence process situation of enemy The command and control information support regarding the operation and composition of the enemy is provided by the combat intelligence. Its entire information activities are arranged in the intelligence process which consists of five steps[2]: planning, preparation, collection, processing and creation of information. This cyclic process 89

91 further includes the function of analysis, evaluation and distribution of intelligence information which occurs in its whole course constantly. 3.1 Planning In planning as an initial step of the intelligence process, the evaluation of the enemy s situation, the definition of the required final condition in the operation and the identification of requirements for information are carried out. Then the information collection plan is created, synchronized and coordinated from the viewpoint of security and effectiveness. After that, intelligence staffs will allocate human and material resources and further necessary technical support for particular tasks. The commander s intent, his instructions for operation planning and Commander s Critical Information Requirements (CCIR) are a basic solution for intelligence planning and control. 3.2 Preparation The preparation for performing intelligence is initiated after the receipt of the Operational Order or Plan, Preliminary Combat Instruction or the commander s intent to perform the operation. It contains the preparation of personnel, material and equipment, coordination of exercises, acquaintance with the current situation in the operation area, acquaintance with the rules of employment, formation of intelligence teams and architecture, coordination of analytical cooperation, etc. 3.3 Collection of information on the enemy s deployment and operation The collection of information on the enemy includes all activities aimed at data and information gathering which will enable commander s situation understanding in the area of operations. The capability of complex situation understanding of the enemy in the area of employment can be achieved through the maximization of data and information collection from all available sources. This network of sources will meet all the requirements for information from different directions and its verification as well. The collection of data and information on the enemy is supported by four characteristic methods as follows [5]: a) Reconnaissance; b) Surveillance; c) Security operations; and d) Intelligence operations. Reconnaissance is a systematic, active and dynamic activity focused on information gathering through visual observation or other detection methods in different zones of the operation area. It is carried out by soldiers engaged in the operation who reconnoitre as dismounted, mounted or transported by air. Their capabilities of collecting data and information may be extended using various sensors or passive equipment for monitoring. Reconnaissance is performed before, during as well as after the operation in the area of responsibility. It provides and updates the information on the enemy s deployment and operation, by which it gives freedom of manoeuvre to commanders of units engaged in the operation area. Generally, the commander focuses his reconnaissance efforts on CCIR, targeting and dead spots without sufficient information coverage. When planning road and area reconnaissance he aims at predetermined structures with a view to confirm or disconfirm the presence of the enemy. Surveillance is the systematic observation of the airspace, ground or underground areas, points, persons or things using visual, intercept, electronic or photographic equipment [1]. It may be used independently for continuous monitoring of areas of interest or as part of reconnaissance. Equipment of surveillance searches and tracks the signs of the enemy s operation in the area of interest which the reconnaissance activities may then 90

92 focus on. Similarly, it is also used to control various technical areas of the enemy s action using which it reduces potential risks for friendly forces and equipment. For efficient continuous surveillance commanders take advantage of simultaneous coverage of a particular region by several surveillance devices, the main tasks of which are the following: early warning regarding the enemy s operation, identification and monitoring of the enemy s forces and equipment including his communication capabilities and evaluation of key targets. Commanders evaluate the results of surveillance continuously and take measures for more effective information gathering from the area of interest. Efforts of surveillance are focused on restricted zones, geographically specified areas, points of interest or organizational, social, infrastructure and communication networks. Security operations are aimed at the protection of friendly forces and equipment against the enemy s surprise operation and reduce the entire situational unawareness on the battlefield. In contrast with the data and information collection methods they are oriented to friendly structures, forces and equipment protected by them in the operation. The aim of security operations is to search actively the information on the enemy s deployment and movement, on the possibilities to take advantage of the terrain by the enemy and on the possibilities to take countermeasures by friendly forces. Intelligence operations match the information collection devices to the commander s requirements for information. The units supporting intelligence operations acquire information either from friendly sources or take advantage of information sources of tactical, operational and strategic intelligence. Each type of intelligence operations provides the commander with specific capabilities and sensors which require specific information control and processing. Types of intelligence operations The intelligence operations regarding the enemy s operation can be divided into seven following types[12]: a) Signals Intelligence (SIGINT). SIGINT is intelligence including either independent outputs or the combination of outputs from Communications Intelligence (COMINT), Electronic Signals Intelligence (ELINT) and Foreign Instrumentation Signals Intelligence (FISINT). It uses communication, electronic and other instrumentation signals as information sources. Characteristic of Signal Intelligence types: - COMINT analyses radio communication in addition to broadcast and television transmission; - ELINT includes technical intelligence which analyse all uncommunicative electromagnetic radiation in addition to nuclear detonations and radioactive sources; - FISINT analyses technical information obtained through the recording of electromagnetic radiation connected with testing and operational use of air, ground and underground systems. It includes the use of signals of signal, electronic and distance-measuring interrogators. b) Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT). OSINT is intelligence from open sources which collects, processes and distributes information from publicly available sources for the purpose of meeting specific requirements for intelligence information [3]. c) Imagery Intelligence (IMINT). IMINT is intelligence taking advantage of optical, electronic or digital outputs from infrared, laser, multi-sensor or radar recording and from visual photographing. 91

93 d) Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT). MASINT is technical intelligence detecting, locating, monitoring and identifying or describing specific characteristics of position or dynamic objects and sources. It uses outputs from radar, spectroradiometric, infrared, laser, hyper-spectral image, acoustic, radio-frequency and seismic sensors and sensors for detecting the use of mass destruction weapons. e) Human-Source Intelligence (HUMINT). HUMINT is a collection of information from people and various media through the soldiers trained for this purpose with the aim to identify enemy units and their deployment, strength, composition, intent, equipment, occupancy and capabilities. f) Technical Intelligence (TECHINT). TECHINT is intelligence which collects information and analyses the threats of enemy military equipment and vehicles. g) Counterintelligence (CI). CI prevents and neutralizes the efforts of the enemy to collect information through the information collection done by friendly forces; it analyses obtained information, investigates and takes countermeasures including the technical ones. It includes all detection and identification activities and the use and neutralization of the enemy s intelligence operations. 3.4 Processing In case of large amount of information acquired from various sources, the information is arranged and divided depending on the commander s requirements for information and its efficiency in the creation of situational awareness. In the step of processing the acquired information is converted into formats suitable for subsequent analysis, information creation or for immediate use by the commander. It may be translating documents, developing films or converting electronic data into standardized reports. On the contrary, data and information from air reconnaissance and from observers can be distributed immediately. Most of these outputs, however, must be evaluated by analysts from the viewpoint of relevance and accuracy. 3.5 Information creation In the step of information creation, intelligence staffs analyze, integrate and interpret data and information from one or more sources to the form of final intelligence products with the use of information support from the superior as well as subordinates. Early, accurate and clearly summarized intelligence products will help the commander recognize the enemy s operation variant and improve the plan of information collection in the operation area. The quality and method of information processing may affect the preparation and planning of friendly forces operation fundamentally. 3.6 Intelligence process functions The intelligence process functions [2] are in progress continuously during the entire time of its cycle. They include analysis, distribution and evaluation of acquired data and information. Commanders and staffs perform the analysis of acquired information with regard to the problems or situations which they tackle through its collection with the purpose of maximum coverage of Priority Information Requirements (PIR). The performed analysis helps commanders at all levels adopt decisions on the best strategy of information collection and the priority with regard to available information sources. Intelligence staffs analyze every requirement for information to define its reliability, the ability to support the commander s intent and the best method to meet the requirement. The 92

94 outputs of this intelligence process function facilitate to define priorities and to perform the synchronization of information collection from more sources. Intelligence staffs try to determine expected variants of the enemy s operation, CCIR and their indicators through the information analysis. The intelligence analysis is a key to creating the commander s situational awareness. It is performed by analysts, specialists for a given area trained to assess information reliability, relevance and importance. Intelligence staffs arrange acquired data and develop another phase of the intelligence operation which includes the evaluation of events and the estimate of their consequences. On this basis they are also able to anticipate the development of the situation subject to newly acquired information. In their analyses they produce more variants of the enemy s future operation and their recognizable signs. They identify possible threats as well as opportunities for the efficient use of friendly forces and equipment in each estimated variant. After analysis and synthesis of all available information, new requirements for information collection may occur to confirm expected variants of the enemy s operation which will enable more effective use and reaction of friendly forces to the enemy s operation. The outputs of intelligence analysis are included in the situation display of the battlefield. Another function of the intelligence process is timely distribution. Sharing accurate and current information from all available sources is a key to successful synchronization and coordination of forces and equipment, their defence and situation comprehension in the operation. Current information must be distributed in a proper comprehensible format which will support the decision-making process of the commander. It is also necessary to create intelligence architecture including the Information Distribution Plan so that each recipient can receive required information in time. Various methods and products supported by technical facilities are used for information dissemination. These are written (reports), verbal (briefing) and graphic products (map and electronic), the purpose of which is to provide the recipient with relevant information. The last function of the intelligence process is information evaluation, which is a continuous process, monitoring of the current situation and its development in all phases of the operation. The continuous evaluation of intelligence operations, equipment, available information and aspects of the battlefield environment are necessary for supporting CCIR, meeting requirements for information, redirecting information collection equipment based on the commander s requirements, proper use of information and intelligence, identification of the enemy s efforts and his prevention or disclosure of deception. 3.7 Unmanned aerial vehicles as flexible source of information on the enemy Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) controlled through the radio network are capable of operating without a human crew. They may also be pre-programmed for flight and for use of carried sensors, weapons or load [11]. Their great advantage is flexibility in task performance by reason of their technical equipment manoeuvrability and variability. Based on the task, they may be equipped with various devices which enable the task accomplishment. These are e.g. electro-optical and infrared sensors, the synthetic aperture radar, ground moving target indicator, SIGINT and electronic means, photographic and video equipment [10]. They are not limited by terrain obstacles, fatigue or the possible loss of the human crew when collecting information. 93

95 Unmanned aerial vehicles as dynamic means taking advantage of carried technical devices for data and information collection may perform different intelligence tasks, e.g.: a) Area reconnaissance. They may monitor systematically a pre-defined area of intelligence interest and identify the signs of the occurrence of the enemy s forces and equipment. The goal of UAV operation is to identify the deployment and composition of enemy units accurately; to identify particular targets and their activities and to enable the priority selection of their destruction; to identify possible enemy reinforcement assets and their routes; and further, to identify possible supply routes of enemy engaged units. The detection of the use of mass destruction weapons and the levels of possible area contamination may also be part of area reconnaissance. b) Road reconnaissance. It is reconnaissance of determined roads important for manoeuvre of friendly forces and equipment. It includes identifying the deployment and composition of enemy units on these roads as well as in their vicinity from where they are capable of disrupting coalition forces manoeuvres efficiently; further, identifying barriers which prevent friendly forces from using roads. c) Monitoring points of interest. Unmanned aerial vehicles may monitor temporarily or constantly specific points, persons, vehicles or other structures important for the performance of operational tasks or for the purpose of responding to CCIR. d) Network monitoring. Network monitoring includes observing organizational, social, communication or infrastructural interconnections and relations of individuals, groups and organizations. It also includes the identification of physical and virtual infrastructure aspects (bridges, markets and roads) in the life of inhabitants [5]. e) Performance of security operations. In the course of task performance as well as in the location of troops out of combat, unmanned aerial vehicles may carry out continuous monitoring of the area of action and its vicinity with a view to early warning against an unexpected enemy s operation. This maintains commander s situational awareness and enables effective reaction of friendly forces and equipment to the enemy s manoeuvre. f) Data collection for intelligence operations. Using on-board sensors and devices unmanned aerial vehicles operate as a means of data and information collection to carry out intelligence operations, such as e.g. SIGINT, IMINT, MASINT, TECHINT and Counterintelligence. Unmanned aerial vehicles enable the commander the search and identification of the enemy beyond the limit of their visibility and the transfer of acquired information on a real-time basis. Automated activities of information management, processing and dissemination obtained through UAVs facilitate information evaluation, analysis and distribution nearly on a real-time basis. Based on the task and the UAV type, the commander is able to obtain important and updated data and information on the enemy s situation in the area of operation. 4 Common operational picture The Common Operational Picture (COP) represents all the important information from the area of intelligence interest in one integral output resulting from the commander s 94

96 requirements and is based on the general data and information shared by more than one commander [4]. It allows all commanders and staff workers to gain complex insight into the development of the operation and to coordinate the operations leading to the successful task accomplishment. The process of the COP creation and use can be divided into four interconnected elements data and information collection, analysis, decision and action. Data and information collection element is created by all sources of information on the enemy which the commander is able to use in performing the task. These are all available types of reconnaissance, reports from the superior and the units engaged in the operation and the sensors scanning the signs of enemy operations. The speed of information gathering, processing and distribution from these sources for further processing is critical for creating the COP. Data and information analysis element is created by intelligence staff members who analyze possible effects of the enemy s operation on the manoeuvre of friendly forces and equipment depending on the time and area and judge its future development. It creates an important part of the Common Operational Picture through the integration, refinement, complex analysis and sharing of the important intelligence information of the enemy. Distinctly displayed situation of the enemy will enable the orientation in the area and the operations important for the effective command and control process. Decision-making element is done by commanders who plan and control the operations of subordinated units. On the basis of complex situational awareness they are capable of adopting qualified decisions on task performance by available forces and equipment [4]. The situational awareness on the battlefield enables more efficient manoeuvre of subordinated units and the use of combat power accurately and in time. Using the COP the reconnaissance authorities may also be tasked subsequently to cover identified gaps in the area of action. Action element is formed by forces and equipment which fulfil tasks in the operation area. In addition, they may also be used as information sources. They participate in creating the COP on the battlefield through providing current information from the area of employment. Immediate availability of the updated COP provides commanders of even the smallest manoeuvring units with the complex orientation in the area of task performance which enables them coordination of task performance in larger military groupings. The Common Operational Picture may be a plot of the tactical situation on the terrain layout of a computer programme which can work in the network with other computers of coalition units commanders. The station interface must support immediate and secure data and information transfer in the network and their accurate display. The character of information provided through the COP is derived from variable tasks in the area of intelligence interest. 5 Conclusion The military operations conducted against the enemy in asymmetric combat are unpredictable with regard to their future development and dynamics. The frequent moment of surprise on the enemy s part puts pressure on commanders to adopt effective decisions on the operation and reaction of their subordinates rapidly. Such risks make bigger and bigger demands on the speed, accuracy and comprehensibility of the entire process of command and control information support. The complicated estimate of the enemy s situation development on the battlefield, his intents and incalculable conduct 95

97 puts pressure on the coalition forces to collect and update information from the operation area constantly. For intelligence estimates of the enemy s future variant the analysts intuition built-up on the basis of complex situational awareness plays an unsubstitutable role. However, every activity or manoeuvre of friendly forces causes the reaction of the enemy. In the same way, every reaction of friendly forces to the enemy s operation causes his backlash [7]. For this reason, the situation development on the battlefield nearly never proceeds according our assumptions. Therefore, every commander needs to know all available current information on the enemy s employment and operation so that he can use friendly forces effectively. Large amount of information from the full spectrum of action in the operation area can be obtained using different types of automated information sources. They may include the search of the enemy s elements in a given area, their identification, specification or, if need be, continuous monitoring and processing of acquired data. The subsequent distribution of this clear information to all users in a common information network supports the creation of the rough COP of the battlefield. The distributed information is displayed on the terrain layout using its position characteristics without the hidden information of tactical-technical character. It is, however, only a tactical symbol positioned on the map according to relevant position data. The visualization of the enemy s capabilities and a possible fire action can be obtained through the fusion of tactical algorithms and technical capabilities of weapons and equipment depending on terrain geographic parameters. In this way, every commander would promptly know the areas dangerous for friendly units with regard to the current weapon range and possible arrival of the enemy s forces and equipment. The network-interconnected digitized environment provides all commanders with important knowledge for effective command and control process in the form of the COP. Using the COP, the manoeuvre and combat force effectiveness of subordinated forces and equipment increases. Through the visual display and summarization of even hidden information of the enemy s elements in the COP of the battlefield, the analytical activities of all commanders will be easier for creating situational awareness on the battlefield. Linking definite and hidden information on the enemy and the possibilities and capabilities of friendly forces and equipment in a digitized form will also enable the acceleration and improvement of planning and reaction capabilities to sudden situation change on the battlefield. The ability to adopt a qualified decision faster than the enemy will provide the commander with major advantage for gaining the superiority over the enemy. It minimizes doubts in decision-making and improves the trust in the entire command and control process. 96 References [1] JP 3-0 Joint Operations, Suffolk: Point Doctrine Group, 2011, GL-17 p. [2] FM 2-0 Intelligence, Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 2004, PIN: , p., [3] FM 2-22,9 Open source intelligence, Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 2006, PIN: , 2-1 p. [4] FM 3-0 Operations,Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 2011, PIN: , C1 6-12p., C1 4-3p. [5] FM 3-55 Information Collection, Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 2012, PIN: , 1-12p., 1-5 p.

98 [6] FM 5-0 The operations process, Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 2010, PIN: , C-5-7 p. [7] FM 6-0 Mission Command: Command and Control of Army Forces, Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 2003, PIN: , B-3 p. [8] Doktrína armády české republiky, 2. vydání, Vyškov: Správa doktrín ŘeVD, 2010, 11 s. [9] LUKÁŠ, L., HRŮZA, P., KNÝ, M. Informační management v bezpečnostních složkách. 1. vydání. Praha : MO AVIS, 2008, ISBN , 214 s. [10] Eyes of the army U.S. Army roadmap for unmanned aircraft systéme , Alabama, Fort Rucker: UAS center of excellence, 2010, 8 p. [11] UAV or UAS?, internetové stránky: Unmanned aerial vehicle systems, c2013, online, , dostupné z: [12] FM 2-0 Intelligence, Washington: Headquarters Department of the Army, 2004, PIN: , 6-1, 7-1, 8-1, 9-3, 10-1, 11-1p. 97

99 SOME BASIC APPROACHES TO THE NEW CONCEPT OF CBRN DEFENCE IN THE CZECH ARMED FORCES Pavel Otřísal Abstract: Relatively quite long time the new military regulation of Oper-1-3 (2011) is valid within the whole Czech Armed Forces. This regulation is based on Standardization agreement (STANAG) marked as This STANAG introduces Allied Joint Publication AJP-3-14 Allied Joint Doctrine for Force Protection which is a NATO/PfP publication. The paper introduces current valid Czech definitions of Armed Force Chemical Corps, CBRN Defence and chemical support and it suggests a possible content of CBRN Defence regarding demands fulfilment set in AJP Keywords: Chemical corps, chemical support, CBRN Defence, Czech Armed Forces. 1 Introduction Both conceptions Chemical Support (CS) as a part of the support of troops operations and Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Defence included in a category of force protection are currently used in the Czech Armed Forces (CAF). Alone division of measurements included into both categories is quite difficult mainly from the point of view of particular tasks recognition which have to be fulfilled by troops in operations. From this reason some activities have been developed in order to determine a new framework of integrated measurements which will be understood in a totally unique way and moreover, accordingly with North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). As an ideal connected link the NATO Allied Joint Publication AJP-3-14 has become. 2 Determination of Chemical Corps and its Relationship to CS and CBRN Defence Although, fulfillment tasks of CS and CBRN Defence is a combined arms meter so within their realization the Czech Armed Forces (CAF) Chemical Corps (CCs) play absolutely important role. From this reason it is necessary to explain and stress some starting points in a framework of both CS and CBRN Defence thereby to determine initial solutions for their combination. Binding and valid military regulations and publications which representatives are Field order of Army Ground Forces [1], a proposal of Všeob-Ř-1 [2], military regulations Vševojsk-2-1 [3], Vševojsk-2-6 [4] and terminological norm of CCs [5] and military publication Land Forces in Operations [6] is CCs, CC and CBRN Defence defined in different ways. This fact causes problems with unique specification of CCs contents and clear definition of fulfilled tasks. Some definitions are introduced in chapters 1.1, 1.2, and

100 2.1 CAF CCs definitions Terminological norm NN is a binding military regulation which sets definition determination of terms within CCs competence. In that norm there is introduced that CCs is a branch of CAF. It fulfills the most complicated and specific tasks measurements of CS within CBRN monitoring, CBRN hazard management, radiation and chemical accidents, troops protection in areas contaminated CBRN compounds and Toxic Industrial Materials (TIM). It is created by units of CBRN survey, decontamination and others. Its parts are groups and centers of warning and reporting. The military regulation Všeob-Ř-1 defines the CCs which is designated for CS of troops. It fulfills the most complicated and specific measurements of CS in CBRN monitoring, within CBRN hazard management, radiation and chemical accidents, troops protection in areas contaminated by CBRN compounds and TIM. Selected forces take part in operations in the peace on the Czech Republic territory. It is formed by a brigade level formation, formations and units of CBRN survey, CBRN protection, decontamination and others. Its parts are collected and management groups of CBRN monitoring (CBRN cell workplaces, workplaces and centers of CBRN warning and reporting and so forth). In a proposal of Field rules of CAF ground forces there is introduced that CCs is designated for CS of brigade level formation, formations and equipments. It fulfills the most complicated and specific tasks of CS within CBRN monitoring, CBRN management, radiation and chemical accidents, brigade level formation, formations and equipment CBRN protection in areas contaminated radioactive and toxically compounds and within masking. In the area of protection against biological weapons it performs general biological survey. Military publication Pub sets that CCs: Is designated for CS of brigade level formation, formations and equipment. In the area of protection against biological weapons it performs general biological survey. From above mentioned definitions result from that CCs fulfils tasks of CS and takes part on CBRN Defence. From it follows, that in both cases it fulfils professional tasks based on employment of the same technical devices, procedures and methods. Tasks fulfillment come into the category of CS are significantly preferred. It follows from views of CCs task specification before joint to the NATO. Furthermore, in current time CCs fulfills significant tasks within Czech Republic Integrated Rescue System (IRS). These tasks are neither exactly nor generally mentioned and it is only possible to hope that tasks within IRS are going to be completed in a mentioned scope. These tasks are specified in so called type activities of IRS parts, which are not elaborated in forms of military regulations, but activities performed in the responsibility of Fire Brigades. CCs play the role of cooperation provider within their realization. 2.2 Definition of CS Terminological norm of NN sets that CS is a kind of a support of troops operations whose aim is created needed conditions for tasks fulfillment within contamination CBRN compound to troops and to participate on their protection. CS includes: - CBRN monitoring; - physical protection of people and material of brigade level formations, formations and equipment (objects) against effects of CBRN compounds and TIM; - decontamination of personnel, equipment, vehicles and material of brigade level formations, formations, units, equipment, terrain, roads and objects. 99

101 Military regulation Vševojsk-2-6 introduces that: CS is a part (kind) of the support of troops operations. And advert to the article 154 of Všeob-Ř-1. In this article there is only named the framework of the support of troops operations whereas particular measurement of CS are elaborated in the head 4, part 4 Chemical Support. In the first article of introduced part (article 174) in named that CS includes: - CBRN monitoring; - physical protection of brigade level formations, formations and units (objects) against effects of CBRN compounds and TIM; - decontamination brigade level formations, formations and units (equipment), terrain, roads and objects. In the military regulation Vševojsk-2-6 measurements of CS are not listed. The text of the head 1, part 2 Ways of CS tasks fulfillment enables to summarize single measurements of CS in the way that CS includes: - CBRN monitoring; - physical protection of people and military material of brigade level formations and units (military objects) against effects of CBRN compounds and TIM; - decontamination; this part adverts on military regulation Všeob-Ř-1, article 183. In that article is noted: Decontamination of formations (units), terrain, roads and objects. The military publication Pub notes that: CS (CBRN Support) creates a complex of measurements whose aim is creates needed conditions for tasks fulfillment within contamination CBRN compound to troops and to participate on their protection. Single CS measurements are in above mentioned military regulations (norm and publication) defined very similarly. It is necessary to note that to very important correction of single measurements came by the approval of the first supplement to Všeob-Ř-1 dated on the 11st of April by the ministry of Defence Vlasta Parkanová. This supplement in the only one supplement of regulation Všeob-Ř-1 and it touches only corrections within CAF CCs responsibility. In the same year military regulation Vševojsk-2-6 was approved. This one comes out from Všob-Ř-1. To complete the author adds that terminology norm NN was authorized in Nonetheless, a process of preparation and final release of Vševojsk-2-6 was relatively long in comparison with NN thus it is possible that just from this reason came out to above mentioned deferent terms explanation. 2.3 CBRN Defence definition The terminology norm NN defines CBRN Defence as a complex of organizational and technical measurements and activities which have the aim to weak an influence and remove effects of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and TIM release and thus to contribute for keeping a combat capability of troops. Parts of CBRN Defence are: - detection, identification and monitoring; - warning and reporting; - physical protection; - hazard management. The military regulation Vševojsk-2-1 includes measurements of CBRN Defence and TIM release into the Force Protection. It notes that CBRN Defence is a complex of organizational and technical measurements and activities which have the aim to weak an influence and remove effects of Weapons of Mass Destruction and TIM release and thus to contribute for keeping keeping a combat capability of troops. This aim is achieved by 100

102 the consequential realization of general measurements of protection and at the same time of special measurements of CBRN Defence. Within specification of special tasks of CBRN Defence it links on the article 53 of military regulation Všeob-Ř-1. This article has been replaced by a snip 2 from the first supplementary to this regulation. In this snip is noted that measurements of CBRN defence contents: - detection, identification and finding of consequences WMD usage and TIM release; - warning and reporting of troops; - physical protection against effects of WMD and TIM; - hazard management WMD employment and TIM release; - medical countermeasures. In subsequent text of military regulation Vševojsk-2-1 there are set special measurements of CBRN Defence in this way: - detection, identification and finding of consequences WMD usage and TIM release (radiation and chemical accidents); - warning and reporting of troops about nuclear attacks, chemical attacks biological weapon employment, TIM release, CBRN situation amd warning against their effects; - physical protection against effects of WMD and TIM; - prevention and hazard management WMD employment and TIM release; - medical countermeasures of CBRN Defence. The Pub notes that CBRN Defence introduces the complex of organizational and technical measurements and activities which have the aim to weak the influence and remove effects of Weapons of Mass Destruction and TIM release and thus to contribute to keeping a combat capability of brigade formations (formations and units). This aim is achieved by the consequential realization of general measurements of protection and at the same time of special measurements of CBRN Defence. From mentioned definitions follows that CCs fulfils tasks of both CS and CBRN Defence. These ones blend together and they repeat themselves. A mutual relationship of CS and CBRN Defence measurements is illustrated in figure 1. Moreover, it is evident that valid definitions of CS and CBRN Defence do not suit and for purposes of implementation of AJP-3-14 they will have to be re-elaborated. 3 Mutual Relationship of Force Protection, Combat Service Support, CBRN Defence and CS and current Understanding of their Content Mutual relationship of force protection, combat service support, respectively CS and CBNR Defence is illustrated in figure

103 Figure 1: Mutual relationship of force protection, combat service support, respectively CS and CBNR Defence (current state) From definition determination of terms CS and CBRN Defence comes out that single measurements are mutually combined thus that a border of the content between single measurements is not unique. As an example it is possible to note CBRN monitoring (CS measurement) and detection, identification and finding of consequences of WMD employment, radiating and chemical accidents. Within comparison of aims, methods and even usage of single both CS and CBRN Defence measurements can be mutually found differences in fulfillment of specific and the most complicated tasks. Furthermore, in definition of CBRN Defence the term of monitoring is revealed. This term repeat itself in definition of CS. This multivalent determination of this term brings into the content of fulfilled measurements a confusion and misunderstanding. Specific and the most complicated tasks of CS and a share on force protection (mainly CBRN Defence) fulfills CCs units. Measurements of CS completely deal with questions concerning radioactive and chemical contamination [7]. It also takes part on solution of question of biological contamination mainly by the non-specific (general) survey, samplings, biological contamination areas forecast, decontamination, people and military material disinfection. 4 A Proposal of a chase of current conception of CS and CBRN Defence A proposal of a new conception of CCs supposes taking over of the responsibility for CBRN Defence and CS tasks fulfillment. This, however, assumes exact determination of responsibility for particular activities and measurements realization. From the point of long-term named and content obscurities between specific measurements of CBRN Defence and some measurements of CS thus seems to be good to think of a current state introduced above and to attempt to make this situation changed. A new system of CBRN Defence should be created. This system will include all necessary measurements even to support of troops operations in condition of contamination caused by WMD and TIM in combat and non-combat operations. The author hopes that the new system would be named CBRN Defence. And it would be defined in the system of force protection with it, that tasks would be fulfilled not only in the system of force protection but also in system of support of troops operations. The proposal of mentioned measurements is illustrated in the table

104 Table 1 The proposal of CBRN Defence measurements and their content The proposal of new measurements Content of measurements CBRN monitoring Includes detection, WMD and TIM, exact - collection of information about WMD employment and industrial accidents; identification of these compounds and - finding of nuclear bursts; observation of CBRN situation development in the force running and operations. - finding of centers (areas) of either employment or contamination of WMD and radiating and chemical accidents; - CBRN survey; - control of exposure to nuclear and chemical hazard; - sampling and identification of biological, chemical and radiological agents; - forecast, assessment and observation CBRN situation Warning and Reporting troops about CBRN situation Includes warning, reporting and handover of information about CBRN situation. Force protection against WMD and TIM effects CBRN Hazard management development. - warning of troops; - reporting of troops and transfer CBRN reports. Note: Realization of measurements of CBRN situation and warning of troops are timely combined and they repeat themselves. - individual personnel protection; - collective units protection; - protection of armaments, material and vehicles. - determination of risk for units activity in areas disposition; - recovery of personnel (vehicles); - emergency medical aid; - decontamination of troops (military vehicles and materials, personnel, objects and terrain). Considering what in current time in NATO documents is introduced the term of CBRN Defence, which can be translated into the Czech language in the same way. This access enables unique understanding of concerning problems. In accordance with current inner CAF documents it is valid that part of forces is detached in favour of IRS. From that reason definition of CCs would be completed in a consequent way: CCs is the kind of troops of CAF. It fulfills specific and the most complicated tasks of CBRN Defence and it participates on fulfillment of tasks within IRS in a case of the Czech Republic exposure. It is formed by a brigade level formation, formations of CBRN Defence, units of CBRN Defence, units of survey, decontamination units and others. In operations in the framework of IRS on the Czech Republic territory it fulfills tasks following from concluded agreements between Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Interior. Potential tasks fulfilled by CCs in favor of IRS on the Czech Republic territory and in the framework of non-combat operations in foreign countries would be specified like this: - detection, identification and CBRN situation monitoring; - recovery (extraction) of personnel; - emergency medical aid; - decontamination of personnel, wounded personnel and vehicles and so on; - maintenance of IRS parts (water supply, changing of personnel and so on). The other possible tasks which would be fulfilled in the new conception of CBRN Defence is possible to specify measurements connected with treatment of water in favour of a decontamination site support even in cooperation with other parts of CAF and IRS. The mutual relationship of CBRN Defence with force protection and support of troops 103

105 operations would respect form illustrated in figure Figure 2: The relationship of CBRN Defence to force protection and support of troops operations (proposed state) 5 Conclusion Considering what most NATO states tasks of CS do not realize (they do not know definition of CS) so they are included in problems of CBRN Defence. On the Czech site arrives problems within international negotiation and solutions of related questions among CAF members in the NATO framework in the area of CBRN Defence. The whole terminology, documents are meanwhile in intentions of Allied doctrines and standards of NATO ant are not implemented into CAF regulations and publications. From that reason it is simpler to conform to NATO standards. As an example it is possible to note the Slovak Armed Forces which fully accepted NATO doctrines in the area of CBRN Defence practically without changes. A similar step would ask of performance of necessary changes into principle CAF documents. References [1] Všeob-Ř-1. Field manual of the Czech Armed Forces Land Forces. 2. rel. Prague : Ministry of Defence, p. [2] Všeob-Ř-1. Field manual of the Czech Armed Forces Land Forces. [Proposal of the rule]. 1. rel. Prague : General Staff of the CAF, p. [3] Vševojsk-2-1. CBRN Force Protection. Prague : Ministry of Defence, p. [4] Vševojsk-2-6. Chemical Support in the Czech Armed Forces. 1. rel. Prague : Ministry of Defence, p. [5] NN CHEMICAL CORPS: Terminology norm. 3. rel. Prague : Ministry of Defence, p. [6] Pub Land Forces in Operations. 1. rel. Vyškov : Section of Doctrine of the Traning Command Military Academy, p. [7] DRAČKA, Emil; ZABADAL, Miroslav; KUČÍK, Jozef. Chemical support of the battalion and brigade. Brno: NBC Defence Institute, 2005, textbook S 3648, 207 p.