This chapter discusses cognition
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1 Chapter 7 Cognition and Mental Abilities COGNITION This chapter discusses cognition The process of thinking, problem solving and decision making. Thinking involves: o Language o Imagery o Reflection o Conceptualization o Evaluation o Insight Thus, in addition to the retrieval and processing information from memory, cognition requires the manipulation of information in various ways. THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY George Miller and Ulric Neisser : The first cognitive psychologists THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THOUGHT The basic building blocks of thought are o Language o Images o Concepts Language: is a flexible system of symbols used for communication. Phonemes o Morphemes
2 Sentences have both a o Surface structure o Deep structure The rules that determine the meaning and form of words and sentences are called grammar Semantics and syntax are the two major components of grammar o Semantics o Syntax Images: a mental representation or recollection of a sensory experience Concepts: a mental category for classifying objects, people, and experiences based on their common features. o Prototypes The Interpretation of Problems Problem representation: PROBLEM SOLVING
3 Producing and Evaluating Solutions o Trial and error Information retrieval: o Algorithm o Heuristics: Hill climbing: Subgoals Means-end analysis Working backward Obstacles to Solving Problems Set
4 Functional fixedness Becoming Better at Problem Solving: o Tactic of elimination o Visualizing o Convergent thinking o Divergent thinking Insight Brainstorming Unlike other kinds of problem solving, decision-making starts off with knowledge of all the possible solutions or choices. Logical Decision Making o Compensatory model Alternative Approaches o Noncompensatory model Faulty Heuristics: o Representativeness heuristic: o Availability
5 o Confirmation bias: INTELLIGENCE Intelligence (mental abilities): cognitive abilities that promote learning and adaptive behavior Intelligence tests: are designed to measure a person s general mental abilities. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Intelligence theorists fall into two categories. 1. "General intelligence" 2. Many separate types of aptitudes and abilities Early Theories: Spearman and Thurstone o Spearman o Thurstone o Cattell Crystallized intelligence Fluid intelligence
6 Contemporary Theories: Sternberg and Gardner (mid-1980s) o A triarchic theory of intelligence Componential intelligence Experiential intelligence Contextual intelligence o Howard Gardner has proposed his theory of multiple intelligences INTELLIGENCE TESTS Development of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Binet-Simon Scale o From the average scores of children, Binet developed the concept of mental age. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: The best-known Binet adaptation o Created by Stanford University s L. M. Terman in 1916 o Introduced the term intelligence quotient (IQ) o The Stanford-Binet is designed to measure skills in four areas: verbal reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory.
7 The development of Wechsler Intelligence Scales David Wechsler Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) Group Tests Negative aspects of group tests: Performance and Culture-Fair Tests WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEST? o Psychologists use reliability and validity as measures of a test s quality, and for purposes of comparing different tests. Reliability: the ability of a test to produce consistent and stable scores
8 o Dealing with reliability problems: Split-half reliability o Correlation coefficients Validity: the ability of a test to measure what it has been designed to measure. Content validity: o Concentration o Planning, memory o Language comprehension o Writing o Criterion-related validity Criticisms of IQ Tests
9 WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE Heredity: Environment: Gender: MENTAL ABILITIES AND HUMAN DIVERSITY Academic Performance: The Influence of Culture EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE Mental Retardation Giftedness:
10 CREATIVITY Creativity: the ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects is regarded by some psychologists as one aspect of intelligence. o The threshold theory: o Creativity Tests:
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