Chapter 2: Dosimetric Principles, Quantities and Units
|
|
- Clement Stewart
- 7 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Chapter 2: Dosimetric Principles, Quantities and Units Set of 131 slides based on the chapter authored by J.P. Seuntjens, W. Strydom, and K.R. Shortt of the IAEA publication (ISBN ): Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Objective: To familiarize the student with the basic principles of the quantities used in dosimetry for ionizing radiation. Slide set prepared in 2006 by G.H. Hartmann (Heidelberg, DKFZ) Comments to S. Vatnitsky: dosimetry@iaea.org IAEA Version 2012 International Atomic Energy Agency
2 CHAPTER 2. TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Radiation field quantities (also denoted as Radiometric quantities) 2.3 Dosimetrical quantities: fundamentals 2.4 Dosimetrical quantities 2.5 Interaction coefficients: electrons 2.6 Interaction coefficients: photons 2.7 Relation between radiation field and dosimetric quantities 2.8 Cavity theory IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 2.Slide 1
3 2.1 INTRODUCTION Radiation dosimetry has its origin in the medical application of ionizing radiation starting with the discovery of x-rays by Röntgen in In particular the need of protection against ionizing radiation, the application in medicine required quantitative methods to determine a "dose of radiation". The purpose of a quantitative concept of a dose of radiation is: to predict associated radiation effects (radiation detriments) to reproduce clinical outcomes. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
4 2.1 INTRODUCTION The connection to the medical profession is obvious. The term dose of radiation was initially used in a pharmacological sense, that means: analogously to its meaning when used in prescribing a dose of medicine. Very soon it turned out that physical methods to describe a "dose of radiation" proved superior to any biological methods. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
5 2.1 INTRODUCTION Radiation dosimetry is a now a pure physical science. Central are the methods for a quantitative determination of energy deposited in a given medium by directly or indirectly ionizing radiations. A number of physical quantities and units have been defined for describing a beam of radiation and the dose of radiation. This chapter deals with the most commonly used dosimetric quantities and their units. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
6 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Radiation Field Ionizing radiation may simply consist of various types of particles, e.g. photons, electrons, neutrons, protons, etc. From Chapter 1 we know: IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
7 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Radiation Field The term radiation field is a very general term that is used to characterize in a quantitative way the radiation in space consisting of particles. There are two very general quantities associated with a radiation field: the number, N of particles the energy, R transported by the particles (which is also denoted as the radiant energy) IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
8 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Radiation Field ICRU-Definition of particle number: The particle number N is the number of particles that are emitted, transferred, or received. Unit: 1 ICRU-Definition of radiant energy: The radiant energy R is the energy (excluding rest energy) of particles that are emitted, transferred, or received. Unit: J For particles of energy E (excluding rest energy): R = E N IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
9 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Radiation Field A detailed description of a radiation field generally will require more information on the particle number N such as: of particle type j at a point of interest r at energy E at time t with movement in direction N N ( r, E, t, ) j IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
10 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Particle Fluence How can the number of particles be determined at a certain point in space? Consider a point P(r) in space within a field of radiation. Then use the following simple method: In case of a parallel radiation beam, construct a small area da around the point P in such a way, that its plane is perpendicular to the direction of the beam. Determine the number of particles that intercept this area da. da P IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
11 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Particle Fluence In the general case of nonparallel particle directions it is evident that a fixed plane cannot be traversed by all particles perpendicularly. A somewhat modified concept is needed! The plane da is allowed to move freely around P, so as to intercept each incident ray perpendicularly. Practically this means: Generate a sphere by rotating da around P da Count the number of particles entering the sphere P IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
12 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Particle Fluence The ratio between number of particles and the area is called the fluence. Definition: The fluence is the quotient dn by da, where dn is the number of particles incident on a sphere of crosssectional area da: dn unit: m 2. da Note: The term particle fluence is sometimes also used for fluence. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
13 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Planar Particle Fluence The definition of planar particle fluence refers to the case where the area da is not perpendicular to the beam direction. Planar particle fluence is the number of particles crossing a giving plane per unit area. P da Planar particle fluence depends on the angle of incidence of the particle beam. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
14 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy Fluence The same concept that is used for fluence can be applied to the radiant energy R: Definition: The energy fluence is the quotient dr by da, where dr is the radiant energy incident on a sphere of cross-sectional area da: dr da The unit of energy fluence is Jm 2. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
15 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy Fluence Energy fluence can be calculated from particle fluence by using the following relationship: dn E E da where E is the energy of the particle and dn represents the number of particles with energy E. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
16 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Particle Fluence Spectrum Almost all realistic photon or particle beams are polyenergetic. For a better description, the particle fluence is replaced by the particle fluence differential in energy: 2 d N( E) d ( E) E( E) da de de The particle fluence differential in energy is also called the particle fluence spectrum. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
17 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy Fluence Spectrum The same concept is applied to the radiant energy R: The energy fluence differential in energy is defined as: d ( E) d ( E) E( E) E de de The energy fluence differential in energy is also called the energy fluence spectrum. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
18 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy Fluence Spectrum Example of Spectra: Photon fluence spectrum and energy fluence spectrum generated by an orthovoltage x-ray unit with a kv p value of 250 kv and an added filtration of 1 mm Al and 1.8 mm Cu. Target material: tungsten; Inherent filtration: 2 mm beryllium Spectra often show physical phenomena: The two spikes superimposed onto the continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum represent the K α and the K β characteristic x-ray lines produced in the tungsten target. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
19 2.2 RADIATION FIELD OR RADIOMETRIC QUANTITIES Particle Fluence Rate and Energy Fluence Rate The particle fluence or the energy fluence may change with time. For a better description of the time dependence, the fluence quantities are replaced by the fluence quantities differential in time: Unit: 2 d d N dt da dt m Unit: 2 d d R dt da dt s Jm s The two fluence quantities differential in time are called the particle fluence rate and the energy fluence rate. The latter is also referred to as intensity. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
20 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS General Introduction The following slides will deal with three dosimetric quantities: (1) Kerma (2) Cema (3) Absorbed dose IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
21 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS General Introduction Common characteristics of kerma, cema and dose: They are generally defined as: radiation energy (transferred or absorbed) mass J kg They can also be defined as: J radiation field quantity mass interaction coefficient kg IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
22 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS General Introduction The first characteristic: dosimetric quantity radiation energy (transferred or absorbed) J mass kg needs a more detailed inspection into the different ways of radiation energy transfer radiation energy absorption. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
23 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Definition of energy deposit The term "energy deposit" refers to a single interaction process The energy deposit i is the energy deposited in a single interaction i where i in out Q Unit: J in is energy of the incident ionizing particle (excluding rest energy) out is the sum of energies of all ionizing particles leaving the interaction (excluding rest energy), Q is the change in the rest energies of the nucleus and of all particles involved in the interaction. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
24 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Example for energy deposit i with Q = 0 (electron knock-on interaction): fluorescence photon, h primary electron, E out in electron Auger electron 1 E A,1 Auger electron 2 E A,2 electron, E ( E E E E h ) i in out A,1 A,2 IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
25 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Example for energy deposit i with Q < 0 (pair production): h positron, E + electron, E - i h ( E E) 2m0c 2 IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
26 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Example for energy deposit i with Q > 0 (positron annihilation): characteristic photon, h k h 1 in positron Auger electron 1 E A,1 Auger electron 2 E A,2 h 2 ( h h h E E ) 2m c i in 1 2 k A,1 A,2 0 2 IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
27 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Definition of energy imparted The term "energy imparted" refers to a small volume. The energy imparted to matter in a given volume is the sum of all energy deposits in the volume, i.e., the sum of energy imparted in all those basic interaction processes which have occurred in the volume during a time interval considered: i i where the summation is performed over all energy deposits i in that volume. Example: A radiation detector responds to irradiation with a signal M which is basically related to the energy imparted in the detector volume. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 5
28 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Definition of an (energy impartion) event: Consider the energy imparted in a volume V by secondary electrons which are generated by primary photons. The incoming primary photons are statistically uncorrelated. The secondary electrons generated by different photons are uncorrelated. However, there is a correlation: When a particular secondary electron is slowing down, it creates further secondary electrons. The primary generating photon, the generated electron and all further electrons (all generations) are correlated. V IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 6
29 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIE: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Definition of an (energy impartion) event: V Therefore, all single energy deposits: that are caused from an initially generated secondary electron, and that from all further generations of secondary electrons are correlated in time. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 7
30 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Fundamentals of the Absorption of Radiation Energy Definition of an (energy impartion) event: The imparted energy from statistically correlated particles can be put together. The term "event" was introduced to denote the imparting of energy by those statistically correlated energy deposits: where N n j N = number of events i n j = number of energy j1 i1 deposits at event j individual events different in size Note: The same amount of imparted energy can consist of: a small number of events each with a large size a high number of events each with a small size IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 8
31 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Stochastic of Energy Absorption Since all energy deposits i are of stochastic nature, is also a stochastic quantity, the values which follow a probability distribution! Stochastic of Energy Absorption means: The energy imparted is always statistically distributed during the time interval considered. The distribution comes from two sources: fluctuation in the number of events fluctuations in the size of events The determination of the variance of energy absorption must take into account these two sources! IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
32 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Stochastic of Energy Absorption Combined relative variance of energy imparted is given by: V( ε) V(N) 1 V ( ε) E(N) 2 1 ( ε) E (N) E ( ε) variance of the number of events variance of the single event sizes where: E = expectation value E 1 = single event exp. value N = number of events = energy imparted IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
33 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Stochastic of Energy Absorption If N (the number of independent tracks) is distributed according the Poisson distribution (which is very often the case) then: V(N) = E(N) = N 2 ( ε) V 1( ε) V( ε) 1 N 2 E 1( ε) It follows: The variance of the energy imparted increases with decreasing number of events! IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
34 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Stochastic of Energy Absorption General conclusions: The variance of the energy imparted is large for small volumes for small time intervals for high LET radiation (because the imparted energy consists of large event sizes) Note: Since a radiation detector responds to irradiation with a signal related to, the same conclusions apply to the detector signal. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
35 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer What is the exact meaning of "energy absorption "? The term energy absorption refers to charged particles, e.g., electrons, protons etc. From Chapter 1 we know: Inelastic collisions between an incident electron and an orbital electron are Coulomb interactions result in: Atomic ionization: Ejection of the orbital electron from the absorber atom. Atomic excitation: Transfer of an atomic orbital electron from one allowed orbit (shell) to a higher level allowed orbit Atomic ionizations and excitations result in collision energy losses experienced by the incident electron and are characterized by collision (ionization) stopping power. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
36 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer Continued: What is the exact meaning of "energy absorption "? The loss of energy experienced by the incident electron by a collision is at the same time absorbed by the absorber atom and thus by a medium. energy losses absorbed energy e - = transversed medium transversed medium For charged particles, the process of energy absorption in a medium is therefore described by the process of the collision energy loss (the collision stopping power). IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
37 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer What is the exact meaning of "Energy Transfer "? The term energy transfer refers to uncharged particles, e.g., photons, neutrons, etc. From Chapter 1 we know: The photon fate after an interaction with an atom includes two possible outcomes: Photon disappears (i.e., is absorbed completely) and a portion of its energy is transferred to light charged particles (electrons and positrons in the absorbing medium). Photon is scattered and two outcomes are possible: The resulting photon has the same energy as the incident photon and no light charged particles are released in the interaction. The resulting scattered photon has a lower energy than the incident photon and the energy excess is transferred to a light charged particle (electron). IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
38 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer Continued: What is the exact meaning of "Energy Transfer "? The energy that is transferred in a photon interaction to a light charged particle (mostly a secondary electron) is called an energy transfer. This process is described by the energy transfer coefficient E h tr tr with E tr h the average energy transferred from the primary photon with energy to kinetic energy of charged particles (e - and e + ). IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
39 2.3 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES: FUNDAMENTALS Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer Relation between "Energy Transfer" and "Energy Absorption" For charged particles, most of the energy loss is directly absorbed Energy Absorption For uncharged particles, energy is transferred in a first step to (secondary) charged particles Energy Transfer. In a second step, the secondary charged particles lose their energy according to the general behavior of charged particles (again Energy Absorption). The energy of uncharged particles like photons or neutrons is imparted to matter in a two stage process. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 5
40 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma Kerma is an acronym for Kinetic Energy Released per unit MAss. It quantifies the average amount of energy transferred in a small volume from the indirectly ionizing radiation to directly ionizing radiation without concerns to what happens after this transfer. K d E tr dm The unit of kerma is joule per kilogram (J/kg). The name for the unit of kerma is the gray (Gy), where 1 Gy = 1 J/kg. Kerma is a quantity applicable to indirectly ionizing radiations, such as photons and neutrons. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
41 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma The energy transferred to electrons by photons can be expended in two distinct ways: through collision interactions (soft collisions and hard collisions); through radiation interactions (bremsstrahlung and electron positron annihilation). The total kerma is therefore usually divided into two components: collision kerma K col K K K radiation kerma K rad. col rad IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
42 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma Illustration of kerma: photons E k,3 E k,2 secondary electrons E k,1 V Collision energy transferred in the volume: where E k E E E tr k, 2 k, 3 is the initial kinetic energy of the secondary electrons. Note: E k,1 is transferred outside the volume and is therefore not taken into account in the definition of kerma! IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
43 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma The average fraction of the energy which is transferred to electrons and then lost through radiative processes is represented by a factor referred to as the radiation fraction g. Hence the fraction lost through collisions is ( 1 g). A frequently used relation between collision kerma K col and total kerma K may be written as follows: Kcol K (1 g ) IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
44 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma Since kerma refers to the average amount of energy E tr, kerma is a non-stochastic quantity. That means that kerma is: steady in space and time differentiable in space and time IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 5
45 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Cema Similar to kerma, cema is an acronym for Converted Energy per unit MAss. It quantifies the average amount of energy converted in a small volume from directly ionizing radiations such as electrons and protons in collisions with atomic electrons without concerns to what happens after this transfer. d C E dm The unit of cema is joule per kilogram (J/kg). The name for the unit of kerma is the gray (Gy). C IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
46 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Cema Cema differs from kerma in that: Cema involves the energy lost in electronic collisions by the incoming charged particles. Kerma involves the energy imparted to outgoing charged particles. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
47 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Absorbed dose Absorbed dose is a quantity applicable to both indirectly and directly ionizing radiations. Indirectly ionizing radiation means: the energy is imparted to matter in a two step process. In the first step (resulting in kerma), the indirectly ionizing radiation transfers energy as kinetic energy to secondary charged particles. In the second step, these charged particles transfer a major part of their kinetic energy to the medium (finally resulting in absorbed dose). Directly ionizing radiation means: charged particles transfer a major part of their kinetic energy directly to the medium (resulting in absorbed dose). IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
48 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Absorbed dose Illustration: V i 1 beam of photons i 3 i 2 i 4 secondary electrons energy absorbed in the volume = bremsstrahlung i i i i where i is the sum of energy lost by collisions along the track of the secondary particles within the volume V. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
49 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Absorbed dose V beam of photons secondary electrons Note: Because electrons are traveling in the medium and deposit energy along their tracks, the absorption of energy (= ) does not take place at the same location as the transfer of energy described by kerma (= ). IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
50 2.4 DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Absorbed dose As kerma and cema, the absorbed dose is a non-stochastic quantity. Absorbed dose D is related to the stochastic quantity energy imparted by: D d dm The unit of absorbed dose is joule per kilogram (J/kg). The name for the unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
51 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Since dosimetric quantities can also be defined as J dosimetric quantity radiation field quantity mass interaction coefficient kg this characteristics needs an inspection of the interaction coefficients of radiation. The following slides refer to electrons and photons. They include some repetitions taken from chapter 1. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
52 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions From chapter 1 we know: As an energetic electron traverses matter, it undergoes Coulomb interactions with absorber atoms, i.e., with: Atomic orbital electrons Atomic nuclei Through these collisions the electrons may: Lose their kinetic energy (collision and radiation loss) Change direction of motion (scattering) IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
53 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions Energy losses are described by stopping power. Scattering is described by angular scattering power. Collision between the incident electron and an absorber atom may be: Elastic Inelastic IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
54 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions In an elastic collision the incident electron is deflected from its original path but no energy loss occurs. In an inelastic collision with orbital electron the incident electron is deflected from its original path and loses part of its kinetic energy. In an inelastic collision with nucleus the incident electron is deflected from its original path and loses part of its kinetic energy in the form of bremsstrahlung. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
55 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions The type of inelastic interaction that an electron undergoes with a particular atom of radius a depends on the impact parameter b of the interaction. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
56 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions For b a, the incident electron will undergo a soft collision with the whole atom and only a small amount of its kinetic energy (few %) will be transferred from the incident electron to orbital electron. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 5
57 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions For b a, the electron will undergo a hard collision with an orbital electron and a significant fraction of its kinetic energy (up to 50 %) will be transferred to the orbital electron. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 6
58 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions For b a, the incident electron will undergo a radiative collision with the atomic nucleus and emit a bremsstrahlung photon with energy between 0 and the incident electron kinetic energy. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 7
59 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electron interactions Inelastic collisions between the incident electron and an orbital electron are Coulomb interactions that result in: Atomic ionization: Ejection of the orbital electron from the absorber atom. Atomic excitation: Transfer of an atomic orbital electron from one allowed orbit (shell) to a higher level allowed orbit. Atomic ionizations and excitations result in collision energy losses experienced by the incident electron and are characterized by collision (ionization) stopping power. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 8
60 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electrons: Stopping power for charged particles The total energy loss by incident charged particles through inelastic collisions is described by the total linear stopping power S tot which represents the average rate of kinetic energy loss E K by the electron per unit path length x: S tot d E dx K in MeV/cm IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
61 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electrons: Mass stopping power Division by the density of the absorbing medium almost eliminates the dependence of the mass stopping power on mass density, Total mass stopping power ( S/ ) tot is defined as the linear stopping power divided by the density of the absorbing medium. S tot 1 de dx K in MeV cm 2 /g IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
62 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electrons: Mass stopping power The total mass stopping power ( S/ ) tot consists of the two components: Mass collision stopping power ( S/ ) col resulting from electron-orbital electron interactions (atomic ionizations and atomic excitations) Mass radiation stopping power ( S/ ) rad resulting mainly from electron-nucleus interactions (bremsstrahlung production) S S S tot col rad IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
63 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Electrons: Mass stopping power Stopping powers are rarely measured and must be calculated from theory. The Bethe theory is used to calculate stopping powers for soft collisions. For electrons and positrons, energy transfers due to soft collisions are combined with those due to hard collisions using the Møller (for electrons) and Bhabba (for positrons) cross sections for free electrons. The complete mass collision stopping power for electrons and positrons is taken from ICRU Report No. 37. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
64 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons Formula according ICRU Report No e 2 e 2 Scol NAZ r m c 2 ln( EK / I) ln(1 /2) F ( ) A with N A = Avogadro constant I = mean excitation energy Z = atomic number of substance = E K / m e c 2 A = molar mass of substance = density effect correction r e = classical electron radius m e c 2 = rest energy of the electron = v/c v = velocity of electron c = velocity of light F ± is given in next slide IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
65 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons F - + F for electrons is given as: 2 2 F (1 ) 1 /8 (2 1)ln2 for positrons is given as: F 2ln2 ( / 12) 23 14/( 2) 10/( 2) 4/( 2) IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
66 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons The mean excitation potential I is a geometric mean value of all ionization and excitation potentials of an atom of the absorbing material. I values are usually derived from measurements of stopping powers in heavy charged particle beams, for which the effects of scattering in these measurements is minimal. For elemental materials I varies approximately linearly with Z, with, on average, I Z. For compounds, I is calculated assuming additivity of the collision stopping power, taking into account the fraction by weight of each atom constituent in the compound. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
67 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons Selected data on the mean excitation potential I as given in ICRU Report No. 37 substance excitation potential in ev hydrogen (molecular gas) 19.2 carbon (atomic gas) 62.0 nitrogen (molecular gas) 82.0 oxygen (molecular gas) 95.0 air 85.7 water, liquid 75.0 IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
68 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Concept of restricted stopping power Track of an electron: electrons with initial E k > Generate a tube around the track such that the radius of the tube includes the start energy of electrons up to a maximum energy. electrons with a start energy E k > are excluded. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
69 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons Definition of restricted stopping power for charged particles: The restricted linear collision stopping power L of a material is the quotient of de by d, where de is the energy lost by a charged particle due to soft and hard collisions in traversing a distance d minus the total kinetic energy of the charged particles released with kinetic energies in excess of : L Δ de d Δ IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
70 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons Note: As the threshold for maximum energy transfer in the restricted stopping power increases, the restricted mass stopping power tends to the unrestricted mass stopping power for 1 E. 2 K Note also that since energy transfers to secondary 1 electrons are limited to E, unrestricted and restricted 2 K electron mass stopping powers are identical for kinetic energies lower than or equal to 2. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
71 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons Unrestricted and restricted ( = 10 and 100 kev) total mass stopping powers for carbon (from ICRU Report No. 37) Vertical lines indicate the points at which restricted and unrestricted mass stopping powers begin to diverge as the kinetic energy increases. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
72 2.5 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: ELECTRONS Mass stopping power for electrons and positrons The concept of a restricted stopping power is needed in the Spencer Attix cavity theory in some radiobiological models IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 5
73 2.6 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: PHOTONS The energy that is transferred in an photon interaction to a light charged particle (mostly a secondary electron) is called an energy transfer. This process is described by the energy transfer coefficient E tr with the average energy transferred from the primary photon with energy to kinetic energy of charged particles (e - and e + ). h E h tr tr IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
74 2.6 INTERACTION COEFFICIENTS: PHOTONS Repetition: A small part of the energy that is transferred in an photon interaction to a light charged particle leads to the production of radiative photons as the secondary charged particles slow down and interact in the medium. These interactions most prominently are bremsstrahlung as a result of Coulomb field interactions between the charged particle and the atomic nuclei. This loss through radiative processes is represented by the factor referred to as the radiation fraction. The remaining energy is absorbed. This process is described by the energy absorption coefficient en (or ab ) en tr 1 g g IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
75 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) For monoenergetic photons, the total kerma K at a point in medium: d E tr is related to the energy fluence at that point in the medium by: K K dm where ( tr /) is the mass energy transfer coefficient for the monoenergetic photons in the medium. tr IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
76 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) For monoenergetic photons the collision kerma K col at a point in a medium: K col K 1 g is related to the energy fluence at that point in the medium by: K col where ( en /) is the mass energy absorption coefficient for monoenergetic photons in the medium. en IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
77 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) For polyenergetic beams a similar relation exists. If a photon energy fluence spectrum (that is the energy fluence differential in energy), E (E) is present at the point of interest, the collision kerma K col at that point is obtained by: E max en Kcol E( E) de 0 IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
78 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) One may use the following shorthand notation for the mean mass energy absorption coefficient. That is, the mass energy absorption coefficient is averaged over the energy fluence spectrum: Emax en ( E) d E en 0 E max 0 E ( E) ( E) de E IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
79 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) The integral over the energy fluence differential in energy in the denominator is the total energy fluence: E max 0 ( E) de The mean mass energy absorption coefficient is therefore given by: E ( E) Emax en ( E) d E en 0 E IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 5
80 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) It follows from: Emax en K ( E) de col E 0 and ( E) Emax en ( E) d E en 0 E The collision kerma is given by: K col en IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 6
81 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) If one compares the collision kerma between a medium 1 and a medium 2, both at the same energy fluence, one can obtain the frequently used relation: K K col,2 2 col,1 en en 1 en 21, IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 7
82 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Energy fluence and kerma (photons) In some cases where the energy fluence is not equal in medium 1 and medium 2, the fluence ratio 2,1 can be assumed to be unity through a proper scaling of dimensions (using the scaling theorem): for very similar materials for situations in which the mass of material 2 is sufficient to provide buildup but at the same time small enough so as not to disturb the photon fluence in material 1 (for example for a dose to a small mass of tissue in air) IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 8
83 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Fluence and dose (electrons) The absorbed dose to a medium D med is related to the electron fluence med in the medium as follows: D med col where (S col /) med is the unrestricted mass collision stopping power of the medium at the energy of the electron. This relation is valid under the conditions that: photons escape the volume of interest secondary electrons are absorbed on the spot or there is charged particle equilibrium (CPE) of secondary electrons S med IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
84 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Fluence and dose (electrons) Even for a monoenergetic starting electron kinetic energy E K, a primary fluence spectrum is always present owing to electron slowdown in a medium. The spectrum ranges in energy from E K down to zero. The spectrum is commonly denoted, by med,e. The absorbed dose to a medium D med is then given by; Emax S ( E) col D ( E) de med med, E 0 IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
85 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Fluence and dose (electrons) One may again use a shorthand notation for the collision stopping power averaged over the fluence spectrum: Emax S 1 S ( E) ( E) de col col med, E med med 0 med The collision kerma is then given by: D med S col med IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
86 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Fluence and dose (electrons) If one compares the absorbed dose between a medium 1 and a medium 2, both at the same fluence: med1 = med2 one can obtain the frequently used relation: D D med med med 2 med 1 S col S col med med 1 S col med, med 2 1 IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
87 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma and dose (charged-particle equilibrium) We know already: Because electrons travel in the medium and deposit energy along their tracks, this absorption of energy (= ) does not take place at the same location as the transfer of energy described by kerma (= ). V photons secondary electrons IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
88 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma and dose (charged-particle equilibrium) Since photons mostly escape from the volume of interest, one relates absorbed dose usually to collision kerma. Since the secondary electrons released through photon interactions have a non-zero (finite) range, energy may be transported beyond the volume of interest. It follows: Kcol The ratio of dose and collision kerma is often denoted as: D D K col IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
89 relative energy per unit mass 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Kerma and dose (charged-particle equilibrium) Relationship between collision kerma and absorbed dose K col D z max D K col In the buildup region: < 1 In the region of a transient charged particle equilibrium: > 1 < 1 > 1 = 1 depth in medium At the depth z = z max, a true charged particle equilibrium exists. = 1 D Kcol K (1 g ) IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
90 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Collision kerma and exposure Exposure X is the quotient of dq by dm, where dq is the absolute value of the total charge of the ions of one sign produced in air when all the electrons and positrons liberated or created by photons in mass dm of air are completely stopped in air: dq dm The unit of exposure is coulomb per kilogram (C/kg). The old unit used for exposure is the roentgen R, where 1 R = C/kg. In the SI system of units, roentgen is no longer used and the unit of exposure is simply C/kg of air. X IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
91 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Collision kerma and exposure The average energy expended in air per ion pair formed W air is the quotient of E K by N, where N is the mean number of ion pairs formed when the initial kinetic energy E K of a charged particle is completely dissipated in air: W air E N The current best estimate for the average value of W air is ev/ion pair or J/ion pair. It follows: W air J/C e K IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
92 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Collision kerma and exposure Multiplying the collision kerma K col by (e/w air ), the number of coulombs of charge created per joule of energy deposited, one obtains the charge created per unit mass of air or exposure: X e ( Kcol) air Wair IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
93 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS DOSIMETRIC QUANTITIES Collision kerma and exposure Since D K K (1 g ) col it follows: K air W 1 X air e 1 g IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
94 2.8 CAVITY THEORY Consider a point P within a medium m within a beam of photon radiation (right). The absorbed dose at point P can be calculated by: S Dmed (P) med beam of photons producing secondary electrons point P medium m IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
95 2.8 CAVITY THEORY In order to measure the absorbed dose at point P in the medium, it is necessary to introduce a radiation sensitive device (dosimeter) into the medium. The sensitive medium of the dosimeter is frequently called a cavity. Generally, the sensitive medium of the cavity will not be of the same material as the medium in which it is embedded. cavity c medium m IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
96 2.8 CAVITY THEORY The measured absorbed dose D cav within the entire cavity can also be calculated by: Emax S ( E) D E E cav r r r V cav E0 cav (, ) d d E, If the material of the cavity differs in atomic number and density from that of the medium, the measured absorbed dose to the cavity will be different from the absorbed dose to the medium at point P. D cav D med (P) IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
97 2.8 CAVITY THEORY Cavity sizes are referred to as small, intermediate or large in comparison with the ranges of secondary charged particles produced by photons in the cavity medium. The case where the range of charged particles (electrons) is much larger than the cavity dimensions (i.e. the cavity is regarded as small) is of special interest. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
98 2.8 CAVITY THEORY In order to determine D m from D c, various cavity theories have been developed depending on the size of the cavity. Examples are: for small cavities: Bragg Gray theory Spencer Attix theory for cavities of intermediate sizes: Burlin theory. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 5
99 2.8 CAVITY THEORY The Bragg-Gray cavity theory The Bragg Gray cavity theory was the first cavity theory developed to provide a relation between the absorbed dose in a dosimeter and the absorbed dose in the medium containing the dosimeter. There are two conditions for application of the Bragg Gray cavity theory. Condition (1): The cavity must be small when compared with the range of charged particles incident on it, so that its presence does not perturb the fluence of charged particles in the medium; IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 1
100 2.8 CAVITY THEORY The Bragg-Gray cavity theory The result of condition (1) is that the electron fluences are almost the same and equal to the equilibrium fluence established in the surrounding medium. However: This condition can only be valid in regions of charged particle equilibrium or transient charged particle equilibrium. The presence of a cavity always causes some degree of fluence perturbation that requires the introduction of a fluence perturbation correction factor. IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 2
101 2.8 CAVITY THEORY The Bragg-Gray cavity theory Condition (2): The absorbed dose in the cavity is deposited solely by those electrons crossing the cavity. This implies that Photon interactions in the cavity are assumed negligible and thus ignored. All electrons depositing the dose inside the cavity are produced outside the cavity and completely cross the cavity. Such electrons can be called "crossers". No secondary electrons are produced inside the cavity (starters) and no electrons stop within the cavity (stoppers). IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 3
102 2.8 CAVITY THEORY The Bragg-Gray cavity theory If one assumes that the energy of the crossers does not change within a small air cavity volume, the dose in the cavity is completely due to the crossers as: where EK0 SE ( ) D ( E ) de K K cav E K K E K 0 E K is the kinetic energy of crossers; E K0 is their highest energy equal to the initial energy of the secondary electrons produced by photons; E (E K ) is the energy spectrum of all crossers k IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students Slide 4
Production of X-rays and Interactions of X-rays with Matter
Production of X-rays and Interactions of X-rays with Matter Goaz and Pharoah. Pages 11-20. Neill Serman Electrons traveling from the filament ( cathode) to the target (anode) convert a small percentage
More informationAtomic and Nuclear Physics Laboratory (Physics 4780)
Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Week of September 27, 2010 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Laboratory (Physics 4780) The University of Toledo Instructor: Randy Ellingson Gamma Ray Production: Co 60 60 60 27Co28Ni *
More informationPrinciples of dosimetry The ionization chamber
Principles of dosimetry The ionization chamber FYS-KJM 4710 Audun Sanderud Department of Physics Ionometry 1) Ionometry: the measurement of the number of ionizations in substance The number of ionizations
More informationLecture 2 Macroscopic Interactions. 22.106 Neutron Interactions and Applications Spring 2010
Lecture 2 Macroscopic Interactions 22.106 Neutron Interactions and Applications Spring 2010 Objectives Macroscopic Interactions Atom Density Mean Free Path Moderation in Bulk Matter Neutron Shielding Effective
More informationACCELERATORS AND MEDICAL PHYSICS 2
ACCELERATORS AND MEDICAL PHYSICS 2 Ugo Amaldi University of Milano Bicocca and TERA Foundation EPFL 2-28.10.10 - U. Amaldi 1 The icone of radiation therapy Radiation beam in matter EPFL 2-28.10.10 - U.
More informationMain properties of atoms and nucleus
Main properties of atoms and nucleus. Atom Structure.... Structure of Nuclei... 3. Definition of Isotopes... 4. Energy Characteristics of Nuclei... 5. Laws of Radioactive Nuclei Transformation... 3. Atom
More informationChapter NP-5. Nuclear Physics. Nuclear Reactions TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES 1.0 NUCLEAR REACTIONS 2.0 NEUTRON INTERACTIONS
Chapter NP-5 Nuclear Physics Nuclear Reactions TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES 1.0 2.0 NEUTRON INTERACTIONS 2.1 ELASTIC SCATTERING 2.2 INELASTIC SCATTERING 2.3 RADIATIVE CAPTURE 2.4 PARTICLE
More informationChemistry 1000 Lecture 2: Nuclear reactions and radiation. Marc R. Roussel
Chemistry 1000 Lecture 2: Nuclear reactions and radiation Marc R. Roussel Nuclear reactions Ordinary chemical reactions do not involve the nuclei, so we can balance these reactions by making sure that
More informationClinical Physics. Dr/Aida Radwan Assistant Professor of Medical Physics Umm El-Qura University
Clinical Physics Dr/Aida Radwan Assistant Professor of Medical Physics Umm El-Qura University Physics of Radiotherapy using External Beam Dose distribution PHANTOMS Basic dose distribution data are usually
More informationActivitity (of a radioisotope): The number of nuclei in a sample undergoing radioactive decay in each second. It is commonly expressed in curies
Activitity (of a radioisotope): The number of nuclei in a sample undergoing radioactive decay in each second. It is commonly expressed in curies (Ci), where 1 Ci = 3.7x10 10 disintegrations per second.
More informationIntroduction to the Monte Carlo method
Some history Simple applications Radiation transport modelling Flux and Dose calculations Variance reduction Easy Monte Carlo Pioneers of the Monte Carlo Simulation Method: Stanisław Ulam (1909 1984) Stanislaw
More informationCross section, Flux, Luminosity, Scattering Rates
Cross section, Flux, Luminosity, Scattering Rates Table of Contents Paul Avery (Andrey Korytov) Sep. 9, 013 1 Introduction... 1 Cross section, flux and scattering... 1 3 Scattering length λ and λ ρ...
More informationX-ray Production. Target Interactions. Principles of Imaging Science I (RAD119) X-ray Production & Emission
Principles of Imaging Science I (RAD119) X-ray Production & Emission X-ray Production X-rays are produced inside the x-ray tube when high energy projectile electrons from the filament interact with the
More informationABSORBED DOSE DETERMINATION IN EXTERNAL BEAM RADIOTHERAPY
TECHNICAL REPORTS SERIES No. 398 Absorbed Dose Determination in External Beam Radiotherapy An International Code of Practice for Dosimetry Based on Standards of Absorbed Dose to Water Sponsored by the
More informationBasics of Nuclear Physics and Fission
Basics of Nuclear Physics and Fission A basic background in nuclear physics for those who want to start at the beginning. Some of the terms used in this factsheet can be found in IEER s on-line glossary.
More informationProduction of X-rays. Radiation Safety Training for Analytical X-Ray Devices Module 9
Module 9 This module presents information on what X-rays are and how they are produced. Introduction Module 9, Page 2 X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation. Other types of electromagnetic radiation
More informationPhysics 9e/Cutnell. correlated to the. College Board AP Physics 1 Course Objectives
Physics 9e/Cutnell correlated to the College Board AP Physics 1 Course Objectives Big Idea 1: Objects and systems have properties such as mass and charge. Systems may have internal structure. Enduring
More informationThe Phenomenon of Photoelectric Emission:
The Photoelectric Effect. The Wave particle duality of light Light, like any other E.M.R (electromagnetic radiation) has got a dual nature. That is there are experiments that prove that it is made up of
More informationChapter 18: The Structure of the Atom
Chapter 18: The Structure of the Atom 1. For most elements, an atom has A. no neutrons in the nucleus. B. more protons than electrons. C. less neutrons than electrons. D. just as many electrons as protons.
More informationVacuum Evaporation Recap
Sputtering Vacuum Evaporation Recap Use high temperatures at high vacuum to evaporate (eject) atoms or molecules off a material surface. Use ballistic flow to transport them to a substrate and deposit.
More informationENERGY LOSS OF ALPHA PARTICLES IN GASES
Vilnius University Faculty of Physics Department of Solid State Electronics Laboratory of Applied Nuclear Physics Experiment No. ENERGY LOSS OF ALPHA PARTICLES IN GASES by Andrius Poškus (e-mail: andrius.poskus@ff.vu.lt)
More informationMASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY
MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY The separate laws of Conservation of Mass and Conservation of Energy are not applied strictly on the nuclear level. It is possible to convert between mass and energy. Instead
More informationAtomic Calculations. 2.1 Composition of the Atom. number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number
2.1 Composition of the Atom Atomic Calculations number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number number of neutrons = mass number - number of protons number of protons = number of electrons IF positive
More informationAppendix A. An Overview of Monte Carlo N-Particle Software
Appendix A. An Overview of Monte Carlo N-Particle Software A.1 MCNP Input File The input to MCNP is an ASCII file containing command lines called "cards". The cards provide a description of the situation
More informationChapter 9 CALIBRATION OF PHOTON AND ELECTRON BEAMS
Chapter 9 CALIBRATION OF PHOTON AND ELECTRON BEAMS P. ANDREO Department of Medical Radiation Physics, University of Stockholm, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden J.P. SEUNTJENS, E.B. PODGORSAK Department
More informationIntroduction to Geiger Counters
Introduction to Geiger Counters A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) is a device used for the detection and measurement of all types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Basically it consists
More information[Image removed due to copyright concerns]
Radiation Chemistry Ionizing radiation produces abundant secondary electrons that rapidly slow down (thermalize) to energies below 7.4 ev, the threshold to produce electronic transitions in liquid water.
More informationObjectives. PAM1014 Introduction to Radiation Physics. Constituents of Atoms. Atoms. Atoms. Atoms. Basic Atomic Theory
PAM1014 Introduction to Radiation Physics Basic Atomic Theory Objectives Introduce and Molecules The periodic Table Electronic Energy Levels Atomic excitation & de-excitation Ionisation Molecules Constituents
More information3 Atomic Structure 15
3 Atomic Structure 15 3.1 Atoms You need to be familiar with the terms in italics The diameter of the nucleus is approximately 10-15 m and an atom 10-10 m. All matter consists of atoms. An atom can be
More informationBasic Nuclear Concepts
Section 7: In this section, we present a basic description of atomic nuclei, the stored energy contained within them, their occurrence and stability Basic Nuclear Concepts EARLY DISCOVERIES [see also Section
More informationRadiation Strip Thickness Measurement Systems
Radiation Strip Thickness Measurement Systems During the past years we have increased our sales of radiometric Vollmer strip thickness measurement systems, i.e. X-ray or isotope gauges, dramatically. Now,
More informationNuclear Physics. Nuclear Physics comprises the study of:
Nuclear Physics Nuclear Physics comprises the study of: The general properties of nuclei The particles contained in the nucleus The interaction between these particles Radioactivity and nuclear reactions
More informationwhere h = 6.62 10-34 J s
Electromagnetic Spectrum: Refer to Figure 12.1 Molecular Spectroscopy: Absorption of electromagnetic radiation: The absorptions and emissions of electromagnetic radiation are related molecular-level phenomena
More information2 ATOMIC SYSTEMATICS AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
2 ATOMIC SYSTEMATICS AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE In this chapter the principles and systematics of atomic and nuclear physics are summarised briefly, in order to introduce the existence and characteristics of
More informationObjectives 404 CHAPTER 9 RADIATION
Objectives Explain the difference between isotopes of the same element. Describe the force that holds nucleons together. Explain the relationship between mass and energy according to Einstein s theory
More informationLectures about XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence)
1 / 38 Lectures about XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence) Advanced Physics Laboratory Laurea Magistrale in Fisica year 2013 - Camerino 2 / 38 X-ray Fluorescence XRF is an acronym for X-Ray Fluorescence. The XRF technique
More information13C NMR Spectroscopy
13 C NMR Spectroscopy Introduction Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) is the most powerful tool available for structural determination. A nucleus with an odd number of protons, an odd number
More informationUnit 1 Practice Test. Matching
Unit 1 Practice Test Matching Match each item with the correct statement below. a. proton d. electron b. nucleus e. neutron c. atom 1. the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of
More informationRadioactivity III: Measurement of Half Life.
PHY 192 Half Life 1 Radioactivity III: Measurement of Half Life. Introduction This experiment will once again use the apparatus of the first experiment, this time to measure radiation intensity as a function
More informationAAPM protocol for 40 300 kv x-ray beam dosimetry in radiotherapy and radiobiology
AAPM protocol for 40 300 kv x-ray beam dosimetry in radiotherapy and radiobiology C.-M. Ma, Chair a) Radiation Oncology Dept., Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5304 and
More informationDetermination of Molecular Structure by MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY
Determination of Molecular Structure by MOLEULAR SPETROSOPY hemistry 3 B.Z. Shakhashiri Fall 29 Much of what we know about molecular structure has been learned by observing and analyzing how electromagnetic
More information1. Orthovoltage vs. megavoltage x-rays. (AL) External beam radiation sources: Orthovoltage radiotherapy: 200-500 kv range
1. Orthovoltage vs. megavoltage x-rays. (AL) External beam radiation sources: Orthovoltage radiotherapy: 200-500 kv range The radiation from orthovoltage units is referred to as x-rays, generated by bombarding
More information1. Units of a magnetic field might be: A. C m/s B. C s/m C. C/kg D. kg/c s E. N/C m ans: D
Chapter 28: MAGNETIC FIELDS 1 Units of a magnetic field might be: A C m/s B C s/m C C/kg D kg/c s E N/C m 2 In the formula F = q v B: A F must be perpendicular to v but not necessarily to B B F must be
More informationEnvironmental Health and Safety Radiation Safety. Module 1. Radiation Safety Fundamentals
Environmental Health and Safety Radiation Safety Module 1 Radiation Safety Fundamentals Atomic Structure Atoms are composed of a variety of subatomic particles. The three of interest to Health Physics
More informationPhysics Notes Class 11 CHAPTER 2 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
1 P a g e Physics Notes Class 11 CHAPTER 2 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS The comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit is called measurement. Physical Quantities All the quantities in terms of
More informationDiagnostic x-ray imaging relies on the attenuation of
X-Ray Imaging Physics for Nuclear Medicine Technologists. Part 2: X-Ray Interactions and Image Formation* J. Anthony Seibert, PhD; and John M. Boone, PhD Department of Radiology, University of California
More informationPHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS
1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS Introduction Physics is the study of matter, its motion and the interaction between matter. Physics involves analysis of physical quantities, the interaction between them
More informationVariance reduction techniques used in BEAMnrc
Variance reduction techniques used in BEAMnrc D.W.O. Rogers Carleton Laboratory for Radiotherapy Physics. Physics Dept, Carleton University Ottawa, Canada http://www.physics.carleton.ca/~drogers ICTP,Trieste,
More informationNuclear Structure. particle relative charge relative mass proton +1 1 atomic mass unit neutron 0 1 atomic mass unit electron -1 negligible mass
Protons, neutrons and electrons Nuclear Structure particle relative charge relative mass proton 1 1 atomic mass unit neutron 0 1 atomic mass unit electron -1 negligible mass Protons and neutrons make up
More information7. DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING 7.1 First order temporal autocorrelation function.
7. DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING 7. First order temporal autocorrelation function. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) studies the properties of inhomogeneous and dynamic media. A generic situation is illustrated
More informationIndiana's Academic Standards 2010 ICP Indiana's Academic Standards 2016 ICP. map) that describe the relationship acceleration, velocity and distance.
.1.1 Measure the motion of objects to understand.1.1 Develop graphical, the relationships among distance, velocity and mathematical, and pictorial acceleration. Develop deeper understanding through representations
More informationChapter 8 ELECTRON BEAMS: PHYSICAL AND CLINICAL ASPECTS
Chapter 8 ELECTRON BEAMS: PHYSICAL AND CLINICAL ASPECTS W. STRYDOM Department of Medical Physics, Medical University of Southern Africa, Pretoria, South Africa W. PARKER, M. OLIVARES Department of Medical
More informationRadiation Detection and Measurement
Radiation Detection and Measurement June 2008 Tom Lewellen Tkldog@u.washington.edu Types of radiation relevant to Nuclear Medicine Particle Symbol Mass (MeV/c 2 ) Charge Electron e-,! - 0.511-1 Positron
More informationMonday 11 June 2012 Afternoon
Monday 11 June 2012 Afternoon A2 GCE PHYSICS B (ADVANCING PHYSICS) G495 Field and Particle Pictures *G412090612* Candidates answer on the Question Paper. OCR supplied materials: Data, Formulae and Relationships
More informationUnit 3 Study Guide: Electron Configuration & The Periodic Table
Name: Teacher s Name: Class: Block: Date: Unit 3 Study Guide: Electron Configuration & The Periodic Table 1. For each of the following elements, state whether the element is radioactive, synthetic or both.
More informationScan Time Reduction and X-ray Scatter Rejection in Dual Modality Breast Tomosynthesis. Tushita Patel 4/2/13
Scan Time Reduction and X-ray Scatter Rejection in Dual Modality Breast Tomosynthesis Tushita Patel 4/2/13 Breast Cancer Statistics Second most common cancer after skin cancer Second leading cause of cancer
More informationIrradiation Field Size: 5cmX5cm 10cmX10cm 15cmX15cm 20cmX20cm. Focus-Surface Distance: 100cm. 20cm Volume of Ion Chamber : 1cmX1cmX1cm
Proceedings of the Ninth EGS4 Users' Meeting in Japan, KEK Proceedings 200-22, p.5-8 MONTE CARLO SIMULATION ANALYSIS OF BACKSCATTER FACTOR FOR LOW-ENERGY X-RAY K. Shimizu, K. Koshida and T. Miyati Department
More informationHeating & Cooling in Molecular Clouds
Lecture 8: Cloud Stability Heating & Cooling in Molecular Clouds Balance of heating and cooling processes helps to set the temperature in the gas. This then sets the minimum internal pressure in a core
More informationRaman Scattering Theory David W. Hahn Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering University of Florida (dwhahn@ufl.edu)
Introduction Raman Scattering Theory David W. Hahn Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering University of Florida (dwhahn@ufl.edu) The scattering of light may be thought of as the redirection
More informationThe rate of change of velocity with respect to time. The average rate of change of distance/displacement with respect to time.
H2 PHYSICS DEFINITIONS LIST Scalar Vector Term Displacement, s Speed Velocity, v Acceleration, a Average speed/velocity Instantaneous Velocity Newton s First Law Newton s Second Law Newton s Third Law
More information9/13/2013. However, Dalton thought that an atom was just a tiny sphere with no internal parts. This is sometimes referred to as the cannonball model.
John Dalton was an English scientist who lived in the early 1800s. Dalton s atomic theory served as a model for how matter worked. The principles of Dalton s atomic theory are: 1. Elements are made of
More informationState Newton's second law of motion for a particle, defining carefully each term used.
5 Question 1. [Marks 20] An unmarked police car P is, travelling at the legal speed limit, v P, on a straight section of highway. At time t = 0, the police car is overtaken by a car C, which is speeding
More informationInstructors Guide: Atoms and Their Isotopes
Instructors Guide: Atoms and Their Isotopes Standards Connections Connections to NSTA Standards for Science Teacher Preparation C.3.a.1 Fundamental structures of atoms and molecules. C.3.b.27 Applications
More information............... [2] At the time of purchase of a Strontium-90 source, the activity is 3.7 10 6 Bq.
1 Strontium-90 decays with the emission of a β-particle to form Yttrium-90. The reaction is represented by the equation 90 38 The decay constant is 0.025 year 1. 90 39 0 1 Sr Y + e + 0.55 MeV. (a) Suggest,
More informationF321 THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS. ATOMS Atoms consist of a number of fundamental particles, the most important are... in the nucleus of an atom
Atomic Structure F32 TE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS ATOMS Atoms consist of a number of fundamental particles, the most important are... Mass / kg Charge / C Relative mass Relative Charge PROTON NEUTRON ELECTRON
More informationKinetic Energy (A) stays the same stays the same (B) increases increases (C) stays the same increases (D) increases stays the same.
1. A cart full of water travels horizontally on a frictionless track with initial velocity v. As shown in the diagram, in the back wall of the cart there is a small opening near the bottom of the wall
More information- thus, the total number of atoms per second that absorb a photon is
Stimulated Emission of Radiation - stimulated emission is referring to the emission of radiation (a photon) from one quantum system at its transition frequency induced by the presence of other photons
More informationHEAT UNIT 1.1 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. 1.1.1 Introduction. 1.1.2 Postulates of Kinetic Theory of Gases
UNIT HEAT. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES.. Introduction Molecules have a diameter of the order of Å and the distance between them in a gas is 0 Å while the interaction distance in solids is very small. R. Clausius
More informationNotes on Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
Notes on Elastic and Inelastic Collisions In any collision of 2 bodies, their net momentus conserved. That is, the net momentum vector of the bodies just after the collision is the same as it was just
More informationEDS system. CRF Oxford Instruments INCA CRF EDAX Genesis EVEX- NanoAnalysis Table top system
EDS system Most common X-Ray measurement system in the SEM lab. Major elements (10 wt% or greater) identified in ~10 secs. Minor elements identifiable in ~100 secs. Rapid qualitative and accurate quantitative
More informationAtomic Structure: Chapter Problems
Atomic Structure: Chapter Problems Bohr Model Class Work 1. Describe the nuclear model of the atom. 2. Explain the problems with the nuclear model of the atom. 3. According to Niels Bohr, what does n stand
More informationCHEM 1411 Chapter 5 Homework Answers
1 CHEM 1411 Chapter 5 Homework Answers 1. Which statement regarding the gold foil experiment is false? (a) It was performed by Rutherford and his research group early in the 20 th century. (b) Most of
More informationAmptek Application Note XRF-1: XRF Spectra and Spectra Analysis Software By R.Redus, Chief Scientist, Amptek Inc, 2008.
Amptek Application Note XRF-1: XRF Spectra and Spectra Analysis Software By R.Redus, Chief Scientist, Amptek Inc, 2008. X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) is a very simple analytical technique: X-rays excite atoms
More informationName Date Class ELECTRONS IN ATOMS. Standard Curriculum Core content Extension topics
13 ELECTRONS IN ATOMS Conceptual Curriculum Concrete concepts More abstract concepts or math/problem-solving Standard Curriculum Core content Extension topics Honors Curriculum Core honors content Options
More informationBiasing. 7 th FLUKA Course NEA Paris, Sept.29-Oct.3, 2008
Biasing 7 th FLUKA Course NEA Paris, Sept.29-Oct.3, 2008 Overview General concepts: Analog vs. biased Monte Carlo calculation Biasing options (only the most important / common options available in FLUKA)
More informationCHEMISTRY STANDARDS BASED RUBRIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING
CHEMISTRY STANDARDS BASED RUBRIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING Essential Standard: STUDENTS WILL UNDERSTAND THAT THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THEIR INTERACTIONS ARE A CONSEQUENCE OF THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER,
More informationTIME OF COMPLETION NAME SOLUTION DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES. PHYS 3650, Exam 2 Section 1 Version 1 October 31, 2005 Total Weight: 100 points
TIME OF COMPLETION NAME SOLUTION DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES PHYS 3650, Exam 2 Section 1 Version 1 October 31, 2005 Total Weight: 100 points 1. Check your examination for completeness prior to starting.
More informationStructure and Properties of Atoms
PS-2.1 Compare the subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons) of an atom with regard to mass, location, and charge, and explain how these particles affect the properties of an atom (including identity,
More informationMeasurement of Charge-to-Mass (e/m) Ratio for the Electron
Measurement of Charge-to-Mass (e/m) Ratio for the Electron Experiment objectives: measure the ratio of the electron charge-to-mass ratio e/m by studying the electron trajectories in a uniform magnetic
More informationphysics 1/12/2016 Chapter 20 Lecture Chapter 20 Traveling Waves
Chapter 20 Lecture physics FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS a strategic approach THIRD EDITION randall d. knight Chapter 20 Traveling Waves Chapter Goal: To learn the basic properties of traveling waves. Slide
More informationPhysical Principle of Formation and Essence of Radio Waves
Physical Principle of Formation and Essence of Radio Waves Anatoli Bedritsky Abstract. This article opens physical phenomena which occur at the formation of the radio waves, and opens the essence of the
More informationSample Questions for the AP Physics 1 Exam
Sample Questions for the AP Physics 1 Exam Sample Questions for the AP Physics 1 Exam Multiple-choice Questions Note: To simplify calculations, you may use g 5 10 m/s 2 in all problems. Directions: Each
More informationwww.mathsbox.org.uk Displacement (x) Velocity (v) Acceleration (a) x = f(t) differentiate v = dx Acceleration Velocity (v) Displacement x
Mechanics 2 : Revision Notes 1. Kinematics and variable acceleration Displacement (x) Velocity (v) Acceleration (a) x = f(t) differentiate v = dx differentiate a = dv = d2 x dt dt dt 2 Acceleration Velocity
More informationAS COMPETITION PAPER 2007 SOLUTIONS
AS COMPETITION PAPER 2007 Total Mark/50 SOLUTIONS Section A: Multiple Choice 1. C 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. B 6. A 7. A 8. C 1 Section B: Written Answer Question 9. A mass M is attached to the end of a horizontal
More informationConversion coefficients from air kerma to personal dose equivalent H p (3) for eye-lens dosimetry
Conversion coefficients from air kerma to personal dose equivalent H p (3) for eye-lens dosimetry ORAMED project Rapport CEA J. Daures (1), J. Gouriou (1), JM Bordy (1) (1) CEA, LIST, Laboratoire National
More informationMolecular Spectroscopy
Molecular Spectroscopy UV-Vis Spectroscopy Absorption Characteristics of Some Common Chromophores UV-Vis Spectroscopy Absorption Characteristics of Aromatic Compounds UV-Vis Spectroscopy Effect of extended
More informationSecondary Neutrons in Proton and Ion Therapy
Secondary Neutrons in Proton and Ion Therapy L. Stolarczyk Institute of Nuclear Physics PAN, Poland on behalf of WG9 EURADOS Acknowledgments EURADOS Workig Group 9 Roger Harrison Jean Marc Bordy Carles
More informationIntroduction. Chapter 15 Radiation Protection. Regulatory bodies. Dose Equivalent. Regulatory bodies. Main Principles of Radiation Protection
Introduction Chapter 15 Radiation Protection Radiation Dosimetry I Text: H.E Johns and J.R. Cunningham, The physics of radiology, 4 th ed. F.M. Khan, The Physics of Radiation Therapy, 4th ed., Chapter
More informationATOMIC SPECTRA. Apparatus: Optical spectrometer, spectral tubes, power supply, incandescent lamp, bottles of dyed water, elevating jack or block.
1 ATOMIC SPECTRA Objective: To measure the wavelengths of visible light emitted by atomic hydrogen and verify the measured wavelengths against those predicted by quantum theory. To identify an unknown
More informationSpectrophotometry and the Beer-Lambert Law: An Important Analytical Technique in Chemistry
Spectrophotometry and the Beer-Lambert Law: An Important Analytical Technique in Chemistry Jon H. Hardesty, PhD and Bassam Attili, PhD Collin College Department of Chemistry Introduction: In the last lab
More informationMasses in Atomic Units
Nuclear Composition - the forces binding protons and neutrons in the nucleus are much stronger (binding energy of MeV) than the forces binding electrons to the atom (binding energy of ev) - the constituents
More informationMedical Applications of radiation physics. Riccardo Faccini Universita di Roma La Sapienza
Medical Applications of radiation physics Riccardo Faccini Universita di Roma La Sapienza Outlook Introduction to radiation which one? how does it interact with matter? how is it generated? Diagnostics
More informationA pure covalent bond is an equal sharing of shared electron pair(s) in a bond. A polar covalent bond is an unequal sharing.
CHAPTER EIGHT BNDING: GENERAL CNCEPT or Review 1. Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons to itself. Electronegativity is a bonding term. Electron affinity is the
More informationTutorial 4.6 Gamma Spectrum Analysis
Tutorial 4.6 Gamma Spectrum Analysis Slide 1. Gamma Spectrum Analysis In this module, we will apply the concepts that were discussed in Tutorial 4.1, Interactions of Radiation with Matter. Slide 2. Learning
More informationThe Existence of a Neutron
J. Chadwick, PRSL, A136, 692 1932 The Existence of a Neutron J. Chadwick (Received 1932) It was shown by bothe and becker that some light elements when bombarded by α particles of polonium emit radiations
More informationCHARGED PARTICLES & MAGNETIC FIELDS - WebAssign
Name: Period: Due Date: Lab Partners: CHARGED PARTICLES & MAGNETIC FIELDS - WebAssign Purpose: Use the CP program from Vernier to simulate the motion of charged particles in Magnetic and Electric Fields
More informationChapter 13 Spectroscopy NMR, IR, MS, UV-Vis
Chapter 13 Spectroscopy NMR, IR, MS, UV-Vis Main points of the chapter 1. Hydrogen Nuclear Magnetic Resonance a. Splitting or coupling (what s next to what) b. Chemical shifts (what type is it) c. Integration
More informationPhysical Quantities, Symbols and Units
Table 1 below indicates the physical quantities required for numerical calculations that are included in the Access 3 Physics units and the Intermediate 1 Physics units and course together with the SI
More informationPhotons. ConcepTest 27.1. 1) red light 2) yellow light 3) green light 4) blue light 5) all have the same energy. Which has more energy, a photon of:
ConcepTest 27.1 Photons Which has more energy, a photon of: 1) red light 2) yellow light 3) green light 4) blue light 5) all have the same energy 400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm ConcepTest 27.1 Photons Which
More information90 degrees Bremsstrahlung Source Term Produced in Thick Targets by 50 MeV to 10 GeV Electrons
SLAC-PUB-7722 January 9 degrees Bremsstrahlung Source Term Produced in Thick Targets by 5 MeV to GeV Electrons X. S. Mao et al. Presented at the Ninth International Conference on Radiation Shielding, Tsukuba,
More information