The Ambivalence of Religion in the Global Public Sphere. Jeffrey Haynes London Metropolitan University, January 2013

Transcription

1 The Ambivalence of Religion in the Global Public Sphere Jeffrey Haynes London Metropolitan University, January

2 Religion and the Global Public Sphere 2 Concept of public sphere (Jürgen Habermas, 1962) is focal point in intellectual debates ranging from political theory and international relations to media studies and feminism. In 1990s, public sphere discussions turned to theorising existence/possibility of global public sphere. Premised on understanding that the nation was no longer adequate for conceptualising public sphere New forms of the public including, global public had to be recognised. Importance of internet and mobile technologies for developing concept of global public sphere.

3 The Return of Religion to the Public Sphere 3 Unsecularization of the world (George Weigel, 1993) In the modern world, religion is central, perhaps the central force that motivates and mobilizes people... (S. Huntington,1996) Until recently, modernity and secularisation were seen as two sides of the same coin. No longer the case as religion returned from privatisation to public sphere and made a presence in global public sphere. Why? Because religion expresses values, beliefs and norms, including important component in many conflicts and conflict resolution. No single, elegant theoretical model to understand role of religion in global public sphere.

4 4 Religion and Globalisation Globalisation is an historically unprecedented era of multi-dimensional technological, economic and political changes characterised by swift urbanisation, industrialisation, and environmental damage. Globalisation undermines traditional value systems: a phase of concentrated uncertainty, instability, insecurity. The impact of religion in global public sphere is linked to ability to exercise religious soft power.

5 5 Religious Soft Power Globalisation strengthens religious soft power, by spreading ideas, knowledge, norms, and values. When Joseph Nye (1990) introduced concept of soft (secular) power two decades ago, it was a useful reminder that hard (secular) power is not the only tool available to actors to achieve goals in global politics. For the first time since Peace of Westphalia (1648), religion is major source of soft power, with consistent global power and presence.

6 6 Religious Soft Power in Action Power= ability to influence others to get them to do what you want. Three ways to do this: (1) threaten them with sticks ; (2) reward them with carrots; (3) attract them or co-opt them, so they want what you do. If you can attract others, get them to want what you want, it is cheaper than either carrots or sticks. So, soft power is the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments. Eg, decline/collapse of USSR 20 years ago: Power of religion proved more enduring than power of Red Army. After Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan, perhaps no one did more to hasten demise of communism in Eastern Europe than John Paul II.

7 7 Religious Ideas, Experiences and Practices Religious soft power can be an important component of power, just like hard, material resources. Religion, not only instrumental in helping to bring down communism in Eastern Europe, but also linked to rebellions against authority, reflecting social, cultural, and/or political grievances, eg, al Qaeda, liberation theology, Hindutva, etc. Religious soft power channelled through ideas, experiences and practices

8 Ideas Ideas are organising principles to explain the world, define ethical life, influence socio-political worldview. Traditionally, religion was central component of a community s ideas, experiences and practices: sacred canopy, to make sense of the world (Peter Berger). Globalisation encourages free(r) circulation of ideas and helps slash holes in sacred canopy. Backlash from religious fundamentalists, wanting revive localised practices via protest movements, eg, Orthodox Jews in Israel against modernity/globalisation, shopping on the Shabbat. 8

9 Experiences Dynamic and dialectic connection between globalisation and religion can lead to new experiences. Globalisation can lead to greater self-reflection, a result of increased cultural, religious and social interactions. Can create/deepen political tension: religious belonging is identity-forming & becomes more important while, at the same time, identity may be changing. E.g., Islamists may regard globalisation as a specific, Western hegemonic tool seeking to spread ideas including alien ideas about gender relations, secularisation and democratisation. 9

10 10 Practices Religious ideas and traditions often intimately connected to specific cultures, but does not imply they are static. Globalisation encourages diversity of religious practices, e.g., Latin America no longer monolithically Catholic. Religions become more dynamic, developing as a result of encounters with each other. Implies that religious practices differ even within the same religious tradition. Various versions of same religious tradition encompassing people with different practices, e.g., al Qaeda and (Fethullah) Gülen Movement.

11 Religion: Conflict and Cooperation Around the globe, especially in parts of the developing world missing out on benefits of globalisation, many people are said to feel both disorientated and troubled. Positive view of religious soft power emphasises enhanced opportunities for progressive religious involvement in various global issues, eg: international development; human rights; conflict resolution and peace building ( Enhanced global dialogue ) Negative view emphasises religion s involvement in decreasing peace and growing international conflict ( Clash of civilisations ). 11

12 Religion and Conflict Some people (re)turn to religion as a way of dealing with associated existential angst. Many find in religion, comfort, serenity, stability, spiritual uplifting. But may also lead to new or renewed feelings of identity, providing people with meaning and purpose which can enhance chances of inter- or intra-religious conflict: some religious fundamentalisms ; religious terrorism; clash of civilisations. 12

13 Religious Intolerance Religion is often implicated in both domestic and international conflicts. This is in part because religious conviction may contain within it various factors which can collectively undermine peace and cooperation. Four sources of danger stand out: 1. Religion is focused on the absolute and unconditional and as a result can adopt totalitarian characteristics. The monotheistic religions Christianity, Islam and Judaism may have especial difficulty trying to distinguish between, on the one hand, claims of the absolutely divine and, on the other, the traditions and history of human existence. 13

14 Sources of Danger If claiming both absolute and exclusive validity, religious conviction can lead to intolerance, over-zealous proselytisation and religious fragmentation. It can also be hostile to both pluralism and liberal democracy. 3. Religion can increase aggressiveness and the willingness to use violence. Added symbolic value can be an aspect of religious conviction, deriving from profane motivation and aims that become holy objectives. 4. Religious leaders may seek to legitimise abuses of power and violation of human rights in the name of religious zeal. Such leaders are nearly always men, and as a result there can also be specific gender-based human rights concerns.

15 15 Exclusive Accounts of the Nature of Reality Concerns are especially problematic when they relate to exclusivist truth claims : i.e., when religious people accept only their own religious beliefs as true beliefs. Examples can include religions of the book Judaism, Christianity and Islam because each claims exclusive authority emanating principally from sacred texts. Exclusivist truth claims: challenge to religious toleration and diversity, as they make conflict more likely and peace and peace building less likely. Religious traditions also typically have core beliefs to help theoretically develop a peaceful, multicultural world.

16 Religion Cooperation and Peace 16 For example, Christianity centrally features the notion of non-violence. Jesus insisted that all people are children of God, and the test of one s relationship with God is whether one loves one s enemies and brings good news to the poor. There is no Jew or Greek, servant or free, male or female: because you are all one in Jesus Christ (Galatians 3: 28). Ambivalence of the sacred (Scott Appleby): religions contain seeds of conflict AND conflict resolution Relationship of religions to violence is unclear, because they often evolve from traditions that in certain circumstances, legitimise force, may claim victims in the battle for their own beliefs, and may demonise believers in other religions.

17 Religious and Non-Religious Conflicts, 1960 to Conflicts Per Year Religious Identity Conflict Religious War Not Religious 17

18 Religious Conflicts & the Global Public Sphere 18 Inter-group conflicts are sometimes explicitly framed in religious terms; may be encouraged by globalisation. This is because increased interaction between people and communities leads to encounters between different religious traditions which are not always harmonious. Religious worldviews can encourage different allegiances and standards in relation to various fundamental areas, including: the state, land, and politics as, for example, in relation to Israel/Palestinians. Such conflicts may take on larger-than-life proportions: a struggle of good against evil.

19 Religion and Conflict after 9/11 Since 9/11, increased religious involvement in so-called inter-civilisational conflicts. This includes protests and increased tension between Muslim world and the West following invasions of Afghanistan (2001), Iraq (2003), Danish Mohammad cartoons (2005), Charlie Hebdo cartoons (2012). Continuing impact of Israel/Palestinians conflict and strong US/western support for the former. Shia Iran in (Shia-majority) Iraq and Lebanon, where Shia Hezbollah is influential, and role in Syria conflict. Sunni Saudi as counterpart to Iran in same contexts. 19

20 Conclusions Globalisation involves religions in global contexts and issues; religions can no longer isolate themselves and must often deal with a range of socio-political issues. Religion affects global public sphere in various ways, both good and bad : on the one hand, terrorism, on the other, cooperation to achieve shared developmental goals via religious soft power. Globalisation influences religion s socio-political involvement in various ways, but not necessarily towards human rights and democracy in global public sphere. 20