Language Choice and the Dilemma of Identity. Chinese first language academics in a TNE environment. Yanfang Si and Stuart Perrin

Transcription

1 Language Choice and the Dilemma of Identity. Chinese first language academics in a TNE environment. Yanfang Si and Stuart Perrin Abstract: The 2000 s have seen the rapid growth of Transnational Education (TNE). TNE is usually associated with the exporting of English speaking education and educational models, and China has been at the forefront of this growth. This has resulted in many Chinese first language speaking academics being attracted to work in these international university settings. Such academic staff have typically been educated and worked within an English speaking country, and TNE has provided them with an opportunity to return and work in their home country but in an educational environment that is more familiar to them. English is usually the academic lingua franca in TNE environments, meaning that Chinese first language speakers often have to communicate with each other in a language that is not their own. This has created a language dilemma as well as an identity dilemma as Chinese first language speakers grapple with who they are. Language can be the catalyst for this; whilst English may be the requirement for the workplace, there are growing instances of the Chinese first language speakers continuing to use English to other similar Chinese first language speakers outside of the university. English has a unique role in China, playing an important role in negotiating identities, investment and access to imagined communities. Drawing on a sociocultural concept of identity this paper, which is part of a wider study, discusses how identity is fluid, multifaceted and complex, and the role that language plays in its construction. It hypothesizes how identities are constructed and how this influences the language choice in the workplace and outside of the university environment concluding by suggesting that investing in (that) language is an investment in their own identity as people and academics. Key Words: Transnational education, identity, investment, imagined communities, English, chineseness, sociocultural. ***** 1. Introduction Transnational Education One of the growing phenomenon within global higher education in the 2000 s has been an increase in the internationalization of education, and more specifically of Transnational Education (TNE), which is typically associated with the exporting of English speaking education and educational models. Huang notes that East Asia, and particularly China, has been at the forefront of this proliferation. 1 The Education Act of the People s Republic of China 1995 encouraged cooperation with foreign partners and subsequently 'partnerships' or 'joint ventures' between

2 2 Chinese and UK/USA/Australian institutions have become increasingly common. Recently the British Council also identified China as a country with TNE opportunity. 2 Examples of TNE include branch campuses, franchises, articulation routes, joint degree awarding powers and online and distance education programmes. One unexpected outcome from this growth of TNE in China has been the extent to which Chinese first language speaking (Chinese overseas returnees or sea turtles ) academics have been attracted to China to work in these international university settings. Such academic staff have typically been educated and worked within an English speaking country, and TNE has provided them with an opportunity to return and work in their home country but in an educational environment that is (more) familiar to them. 2. TNE and Language Within TNE environments as highlighted above, English is usually the academic lingua franca. Jenkins highlights that although such universities may claim to be international in nature, when it comes to English it is largely native speaker standards that are expected, calling it business as usual. 3 Indeed Jenkins is clear that she sees an opportunity that has been missed in what is essentially an English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) environment, as the demand for native speaker standards fails to take into account that within the international or TNE environment students (and academics) will communicate primarily in non-native lingua franca English groups. 4 Despite this, there is often pressure on both non- English first language speaking academic staff as well as the student body to function fluently in terms of professional practice and assessment, as well as everyday language use. Brumfit sums up the debate about English today by explaining that English no longer belongs numerically to speakers of English as a mother tongue and that the major advances in sociolinguistic research over the last half century indicate the extent to which languages are shaped by their use, concluding that for language change, language maintenance, and for the beliefs and ideologies associated with the language English mother tongue speakers are in a minority. 5 However, as Turner highlights, within academia anything that is not the English norm is represented as needing remedial action, and that the discourses around English have native speaker dominant representations and conceptulisations of the language. 6 For Chinese academic staff, this dilemma of language, between the pressure for a native speaker level of competence during the working and professional day, as well as the need to communicate effectively within the chinese first language community, can have immense influences on who they (the Chinese academic staff body) think they are. 3. TNE, Language and Identity Norton has highlighted the mutually constitutive effect between language and identity, 7 with Gu emphasizing that an individual s identity is multiple in nature,

3 3 and is changing over time as well as a site of struggle. 8 Academic communities have their own social practices and newcomers to that community need to negotiate access. In TNEs that negotiation usually takes place in a second or additional language, involving, as Duff highlights, the development of the individuals voice, identity and agency in the new culture and language. 9 This paper focuses on Chinese academics working in a second or additional language, analyzing the role that TNE plays in creating new layers of identity within this situated environment. 4. The TNE Institution The location in which the research has taken place is the home institution of both presenters, a unique TNE model based in the eastern Chinese province of Jiangsu. The university, situated in Suzhou, is a joint venture between a Chinese tier 1 university and a UK Russell Group university, which created an additional and independent university, which encompasses the essence of the two parent institutions. It seeks to merge the traditions of Chinese and (Anglo) western educational models as presenting the possibilities to create a new and unique learning environment. The university intends to become a research-led international university in China and a Chinese university recognised internationally for its unique features in learning & teaching, research, social service, and education management. The university is the first and only one of its kind approved by the Ministry of Education in China, and awards both its own Chinese degree and a degree from UK parent institution for its undergraduate programmes. English is the working language of the university both for its day to day running and delivery of degree programmes. Although it has academic staff representing over 40 different countries and nationalities, around 50% of its teaching staff are Chinese nationals, all with some form of international teaching experience. 5. Narrative language exchange in Suzhou At the university, everyone expects or is expected to communicate in English, as English is the language for learning, teaching and working. This is a continual message heard every day in the workplace. When it comes to communication between Chinese staff, the decision to use Chinese language or English language is more complicated than it sounds. Chinese first language speakers face language choice in this TNE environment. The dilemma of language choice is highlighted very succinctly in the following language exchanges that occurred between one of the presenters and some colleagues who work at the institution, which provided a rich source of inspiration for this paper. Language Exchange 1

4 4 The first interesting but confusing conversation with a colleague on my first day to work (a the university) happened in an elevator, only two of us. It s a little unusual that I was thinking if she was Chinese or someone who looked like Chinese. Is she from another country? Would it make her embarrassed if I talk to her in Chinese? What if she is Chinese but I speak English with her? After couple of seconds silence with these strange questions in my mind, I confirmed she was Chinese through my question Do you speak Chinese? My greeting sentences in English turned it into another embarrassing situation that two Chinese persons were talking in English without any other foreigners around. But fortunately we still ended up with couple of sentences in Chinese. This would not happen in any other Chinese university, in other words, the researcher/presenter have never thought about which language she should use, or would be appropriate to use. Language Exchange 2 The second confusing dilemma was in my office with a colleague for work purposes. I know she is Chinese from her name and some information from other colleagues. It s not a surprise when she came and tried to start the conversation in English after our several working exchanges in English. I could have replied in English, but based on her Chineseness, I automatically replied her in Chinese and initiated a Chinese conversation for a simple intention of making it more natural. The time when she switched from English to Chinese, I could feel the atmosphere was a little strange and unexpectedly stressful, but we still got the work done pleasantly. She left with a professional smile and an English ending sentence for the continuation of our work in the following week. In between, we came across in the printing room or corridors a couple of times. Our greeting conversations were like playing English- Chinese language ball, her English and my Chinese, back and forth. And then I decided to end up with our conversation totally in English for the rest of the work in my office after this language ball playing game. The researcher/presenter had doubted if she was professional, but she had no problem with the English working language concept, no problem to communicate in English during work. She just felt it s more natural to talk in Chinese if we are Chinese. Language Exchange 3

5 5 When the same colleague and I happened to meet outside in a very busy street with only other Chinese people around, her English greeting was a little surprising but friendly. This English-Chinese language ball-playing game continued despite that I indicated to speak Chinese, since it s out of work, which turned into a really odd situation with two strange Chinese persons talking in two different languages in the street. I feel uncomfortable, even a little ashamed, to speak English instead of our own language, Chinese, with another Chinese person in a completely Chinese circumstance. The researcher/presenter had never experienced this uncomfortableness, awkwardness and confusion about language choice until several accidental conversations with a teaching staff that is actually Chinese but insisted in speaking only English with her even out of the university. The preceding language exchanges prompted the following questions, which are at the core of a research project that this presentation is just a small part of. Our curiosity was now getting greater than her confusion after those experiences. This led the researcher to ask herself the following question. Why do I, or people are like me, think it s more natural or comfortable to speak Chinese to Chinese staff, especially out of work or out of the university? This overarching question led us to further questions and thoughts regarding the initial language exchanges, and what they may really be relating to; Why do some Chinese staff prefer to choose English to communicate. Are they trying to be professional to stay in or to get into a world? Am I also trying to find a different home? Why they insist in English even when Chinese language is initiated out of the workplace? Why do they choose to speak some Chinese with foreign colleagues who are learning Chinese or can speak some Chinese? It is not the intention of this paper to go into detail as to where our thinking on these questions has taken us, but to provide a framework for where we feel we have started to go on our journey. Three key cornerstones have been identified as being important in developing a sense of understanding to these questions; the role of English language, the importance of investment, and the concept of imagined communities. We then argue that these cornerstones are bound together through the concept of identity as a sociocultural construct. English language plays a unique role in Chinese society. Studies by Gao Y et al within mainland China, 10 and Gao X et al within Hong Kong, 11 reinforce this argument by suggesting that Chinese learners view English as essential for selfempowerment. Oxford further highlights how (English) language ability allows access within power structures and cultural alternatives. 12 Indeed, Gao et al in a study of Hong Kong learners of English concluded that English was a tool in

6 which they could invest to gain their desired social status and identities. 13 Whilst these studies focused on learners of English, this study argues that the nonlinguistic benefits of English are equally relevant to the daily users of within the TNE English speaking environment, as there are equally cultural alternatives, desired social status and identity issues with the non-native competent user. This is reinforced by Gu, who argued that English means more than a foreign language in China, again highlighting how it plays an important role in negotiating identities, values and ideologies. 14 Gu 15 builds on the work of Norton, who identified the idea of investment as a sociological construct which helps to understand the relationship of second (or additional) language users to that language. 16 Norton suggested that if learners (or users as in this study) invest in the language they do so with an understanding that they could increase their cultural capital. 17 For the Chinese academics in this study, investing in English within the TNE environment would also be an investment in their own identity. The wider study aims to understand how identities are constructed, and what are the sites of struggle that take place within this construction. In doing so it looks at Kanno and Norton s concept of imagined communities, defined as groups or communities that (learners) connect through the power of imagination across space and time, arguing that they (imagined communities) can give a sense of community with other Chinese returning academics. 18 As Kanno and Norton argue these communities are no less important than ones that users have daily engagement (with), 19 and investment in English within the TNE environment must be understood within this context Norton. 20 Norton identified five characteristics of a sociocultural conception of identity, identified as follows. 21 Identity is dynamic and constantly changes over location and time, bringing in a feeling of transition as language learners and users undergo significant life changes. Within the three narratives, there is evidence of transition as both participants within the game of language-ball move adapt to working in an English speaking environment within China. Although the location may change to being a predominatly Chinese speaking one, as in language exchange 3, the association of each other with the TNE environment may be acting as a conduit to reinforce language choice. Identity is complex, contradictory and multifaceted. Again the language exchanges highlight how this is the case in the study institution. The confusion as to whether a colleague was Chinese, and the decision-making as to what is appropriate language to use in different work and social situations highlights the complexity of identity. Identity constructs and is constructed by language. Pavlenko sees language as a form of symbolic capital as well as a site of struggle through identity construction. 22 By using English, the dominant language of work during language exchanges between two Chinese speakers, especially in the Chinese street environment, the symbolic capital of English compared to Chinese is 6

7 7 being displayed. The struggle that Pavlenko alludes to is also aptly described in each of the language-ball games. Identity construction is not divorced from wider social processes, and is marked by relations of power which is either coercive or collaborative. Pennycook highlights how power is at the heart of questions of discourse, disparity and difference. 23 This is illustrated through the negotiation of language dominance through language-ball, the underlying issues of seeing language as power illustrated the impression of English as being more central whilst Chinese is more peripheral. Identity theory is linked with classroom practice. Canagarajah suggested that learners need to be reflexive about learning as they need to be reflexive about themselves. 24 This study replaces classroom practice with workplace practice, suggesting that language users need to be reflexive about their own values, identities, and communities of practice, as has been the prompt for this study. 6. Final thoughts In effect this paper finishes with as many further questions as it has answers. The three language exchanges serve to illustrate the site of struggle of the TNE environment for those who live and work in a language and culture that is usually different to the surrounding wider environment. Bourdieu argues that language cannot be divorced from larger social relationships, 25 whilst Weedon 26 highlights that language is also where identity is constructed. The language exchanges add to this, showing that English may be a site of power and struggle by providing access to the wider TNE English speaking academic community, but it raises questions as to how some users see themselves as Chinese and what does their Chineseness consist of. Finally, by drawing on a broad concept of sociocultural theory to understand better the language exchanges and language-ball games that have taken place, it better places the research to gain a greater insight of the relationship between identity, language, investment and intercultural communication in the TNE environment. It better enables an understanding of language status within the university. This is important as an analysis of language users actions from the position of investment into imagined communities can provide important insights into their behaviour and the impact that this can have on their work and (personal and professional) development goals. Notes

8 1 Futao Huang, Internationalisation of higher education in China: A focus on foreign degree-conferring programs, RIKE International Publication Series : The British Council, The shape of things to come. The evolution of transnational education: data, definitions, opportunities and impacts analysis. Going Global 2013: Jennifer Jenkins, Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal of Pragmatics 43/4, (2011): Jenkins, ELF Chris Brumfit, Individual Freedom in Language Teaching. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), Joan Turner, Joan. Language in the Academy. Cultural reflexivity and intercultural dynamics. (Bristol: Multilingual Matters, 2011), 3. 7 Bonny Norton, Identity and Language Learning. Gender, Ethnicity and Educational Change. (Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2000). 8 Michelle Mingyue Gu, Identities constructed in difference: English language learners in China. Journal of Pragmatics 42, (2010): Patricia A. Duff, Problematising academic discourse socialisation, in Learning discourses and the discourses of learning, eds. Helen Marriott, Tim Moore and Robyn Spence-Brown (Melbourne, Australia; University of Sydney Press, 2007),1-18.

9 10 Yihong Gao, Yuxia Li, and Weina Li, EFL learning and self-identity construction. Three cases of Chinese College English Majors, Asian Journal of English Language Teaching 12, 2002: Xuesong Gao, Huiman Cheng,and Peter Kelly, Supplementing an uncertain investment? Mainland Chinese students practising English together in Hong Kong, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 18/1, (2008): Rebecca Oxford, Towards a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy in The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics, ed. Robert. B. Kaplan. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), Gao et al, uncertain investment, Hong Kong Gu, Identities, English language learners Gu, Identities, English language learners Norton, Identity Norton, Identity Yasuko Kanno, and Bonny Norton, Imagined Communities and Educational Possibilities: Introduction, Journal of Language, Identity and Education 2/4, (2003): Kanno and Norton Imagined communities 242

10 20 Bonny Norton, Non-participation, imagined communities and the language classroom, in Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research, ed Michael P. Breen (Essex: Pearson Education, 2001). 21 Bonny Norton, Identity as a sociocultural construct in second language education TESOL in Context [Special Issue] (2006): Aneta Pavlenko, Gender and sexuality in foreign and second language education: Critical and feminist approaches, in Critical pedagogies and language learning eds Bonny Norton and Kelleen Toohey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), Alistair Pennycook, Critical applied linguistics: A critical introduction.(mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001) Suresh Canagarajah, Resisting linguistic imperialism in English teaching. (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1999). 25 Pierre Bourdieu, The economics of linguistic exchanges, Social Science Information 16(6), (1977): Chris Weedon, Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory. (London: Blackwell, 1987). Bibliography Bourdieu, Pierre. The economics of linguistic exchanges, Social Science Information 16(6), (1977): Brumfit, Chris. Individual Freedom in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Canagarajah, Suresh. Resisting linguistic imperialism in English teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Pres,s 1999.

11 Duff, Patricia A. Problematising academic discourse socialisation. In Learning discourses and the discourses of learning, edited by. Helen Marriott, Tim Moore and Robyn Spence-Brown, Melbourne, Australia; University of Sydney Press, Gao, Xuesong, Cheng, Huiman and Kelly, Peter. Supplementing an uncertain investment? Mainland Chinese students practising English together in Hong Kong. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 18/1, (2008): Gao, Yihong., Li, Yuxia., and Li, Weina. EFL learning and self-identity construction. Three cases of Chinese College English Majors. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching 12, (2002): Gu, Michelle Mingyue. Identities constructed in difference: English language learners in China. Journal of Pragmatics 42, (2010): Huang,Futao. Internationalisation of higher education in China: A focus on foreign degree-conferring programs, RIKE International Publication Series 10, Jenkins, Jennifer Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal of Pragmatics 43/4, (2011): Kanno, Yasuko and Norton, Bonny. Imagined Communities and Educational Possibilities: Introduction. Journal of Language, Identity and Education 2/4, (2003): Norton, Bonny. Identity and Language Learning. Gender, Ethnicity and Educational Change. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, Norton, Bonny. Non-participation, imagined communities and the language classroom. In Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research edited by Michael P. Breen. Essex: Pearson Education, Norton, Bonny. Identity as a sociocultural construct in second language education. In TESOL in Context [Special Issue]. Oxford, R. Towards a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy. In The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics, edited by Robert. B. Kaplan Oxford: Oxford University Press, Pavlenko, Aneta. Gender and sexuality in foreign and second language education: Critical and feminist approaches. In Critical pedagogies and language learning edited by Bonny Norton and kelleen Toohey Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Pennycook, Alistair. Critical applied linguistics: A critical introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, The British Council, The shape of things to come. The evolution of transnational education: data, definitions, opportunities and impacts analysis. Going Global 2013: Turner, Joan. Language in the Academy. Cultural reflexivity and intercultural dynamics. Bristol: Multilingual Matters, Weedon, Chris. Feminist practice and poststructuralist theory. London: Blackwell, 1987