The Validity of the Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self Efficacy in Jamaica

Transcription

1 Self Efficacy in Jamaica The Validity of the Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self Efficacy in Jamaica Marina Ramkissoon The University of the West Indies, Mona Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the concurrent, retrospective, predictive and factorial validity of Bandura s (1990) Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Efficacy (MSPSE) in a Jamaican university context. The scales were tested using data from 192 undergraduate Social Sciences students at the University of the West Indies (UWI) using a confirmatory factor analysis design. Results were compared to Bandura s original subscales and a similar study by Choi, Fuqua & Griffin (2001). The MSPSE showed strong factorial validity for two of its scales: self regulated learning and self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure. Differences were seen for the other scales, which point to cultural differences in the meaning of self efficacy dimensions. Concurrent validity was moderate for most of the subscales, while predictive and retrospective correlations were weaker or negligible, due in part to limitations of the measurement. While the MSPSE has some support from this present paper, modifications are necessary before it is applied to the Jamaican setting. 39

2 Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2004 The Validity of the Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self Efficacy in Jamaica The concept of self, and its many dimensions, has generated numerous articles and books around the globe. Self concept, self esteem, self efficacy, self motives, self regulation and identity are but some of the dimensions of interest to social scientists. Here in the Caribbean, there is a much smaller body of work related to self issues. Consequently, researchers have not delved into the concept of efficacy, individual or collective. This concept is of relevance to the region in that, like identity, the term self efficacy can be used to bring the social and individual dimensions of experience together. According to Albert Bandura (1995) perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. Efficacy beliefs influence how people think, feel, motivate themselves, and act. (p. 2) Efficacy beliefs can originate from mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasions from groups or individuals and even physiological states. Additionally, they can be based on beliefs in the capabilities of oneself, other agents or collectivities. Therefore, they can serve as potential links between internal motivational and belief processes and external markers of achievement and success. Furthermore, They affect whether individuals think in self enhancing or self debilitating ways; how well they motivate themselves and persevere in the face of difficulties; the quality of their emotional life, and the choices they make at important decisional points which set the course of life paths. (Bandura, 2002, p. 270) Although the concept of self efficacy is more related to self regulation, it can also be theoretically linked to other aspects of self such as one s feelings of worth (self esteem) and one s knowledge base of beliefs, attitudes and characteristics about oneself (self concept). For instance, a person s expectation or belief that he can do well in a mathematics examination should be tied to his self characterization as a good mathematics student. Additionally, if this expectation leads to a successful outcome, self esteem levels should increase or be maintained at a high level. These relationships are complex, however, and mediating variables need to be uncovered through empirical research, especially since efficacy varies on dimensions such as magnitude, strength and generality. Researchers have demonstrated correlations between efficacy and self concept (Lent, Brown & Gore, 1997), academic grades (Silver, Smith & Greene, 2001), self esteem (Woodruff & Cashman, 1993) and other related constructs. An important issue in psychological research in the Caribbean is that of the cultural validity of concepts, theories and instruments adopted especially from North America or Europe. The nature of self efficacy in the Jamaican culture has not been investigated, and it may be found that foreign scales were designed to tap into areas of efficacy which are either 40

3 Self Efficacy in Jamaica irrelevant or construed and experienced in different ways. For instance, many persons in the Caribbean may have a sense of personal power and efficacy originating from beliefs in a Supreme Being. In terms of measurement therefore, cultural validity is just as important as other forms of validity and reliability. Many studies have also focused on the measurement of efficacy (Silver, Smith Jr., & Greene, 2001; Lent, Brown & Gore, 1997). The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Self Efficacy (MSPSE) (Bandura, 1990) constructed by Albert Bandura, has been investigated by a few researchers (Choi, Fuqua & Griffin, 2001; Miller, Coombs & Fuqua, 1999). Choi et al. conducted an exploratory factor analysis of the MSPSE (Bandura, 1990) using 651 mostly Caucasian (80%) college students (49% freshmen, 51% female, 87% single marital status) averaging years of age (SD = 3.60). This sample is a typical representation of large and predominantly Caucasian universities in America. All 57 of the original MSPSE items were used. Miller, Coombs & Fuqua (1999) also investigated the MSPSE with 500 high school students (248 girls, 202 boys, 50 with no reported gender; 96% middle class Caucasian; 50% seniors). Both studies found support for the scale s dimensions, but also uncovered problems with some of the dimensions of efficacy. No such study is known to have been done in the Jamaican context. This present paper seeks to investigate the factorial, concurrent, predictive and retrospective validty as well as the internal consistency of Bandura s original subscales using a Jamaican university sample, and to also compare these results with the study by Choi et al.. Although not involving structural equation modeling techniques, this paper attempts a confirmatory factor analysis of the MSPSE as it seeks to test a predefined model of self efficacy in a Jamaican university setting. Method Participants Data were extracted from a larger data set of 295 first year psychology students in the Social Sciences faculty at the University of the West Indies, Mona Campus. The current sample consisted of 192 students: 82.7% females, 99% Jamaican nationals, with median age of 20.0 years (mean age = 23.6 years; SD = 7) 64% full time registrations, 80.7% single (marital status), 63.4% Christian and 50.5% living in nuclear families. This sample is different from that used by Choi and associates in that it is almost a totally Black Jamaican sample of older freshmen who were not given extra credit for participation. 41

4 Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2004 Instruments Self efficacy was measured using Bandura s MSPSE (1990) using the following scale range: 1(not well at all) to 7 (always well). All 57 items were used in their original form. These items were designed to measure nine different self efficacy dimensions: enlisting social resources; academic achievement; self regulated learning; leisure time skill and extracurricular activities; self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure; meet others expectations; social self efficacy; self assertive efficacy; and enlisting parental and community support. These subscales are immediately relevant to academic achievement settings. Other variables were measured to establish concurrent and predictive validity. Self esteem, one s overall evaluation of self worth, was measured using Rosenberg global self esteem scale (1965) which consists of 10 items scored on a scale from zero (extremely uncharacteristic of me) to 4 (extremely characteristic). Five of the items are positively worded and these were used to compute a positive self esteem score. Research has shown that the positive-negative dichotomy of the Rosenberg scale is problematic (Tomas & Oliver, 1999). Assertiveness was measured using the Rathus Assertiveness Scale (Rathus, 1973) which consists of 30 items. They were measured on a 6 point Likert-type scale ranging from very characteristic of me, extremely descriptive (1) to very uncharacteristic of me, extremely non-descriptive (6). Assertive behaviours can include standing up for one s self, actively disagreeing and expressing emotions and opinions freely. Assertiveness can be described as the ability to approach others rather than avoid communicating with them (Kearney, Beatty, Plax & McCroskey, 1984). Self concept was measured using the Six-Factor Self-Concept Scale (Stake, 1994). It measures adult self concept in six dimensions: likeability, morality, task accomplishment, giftedness, power, and vulnerability. The 36 items of the scale were measured on a scale from 1 (never or almost never true of me) to 7 (always or almost always true of me). Students academic grades (GPA) for the first semester were available to establish the predictive validity of self efficacy dimensions. This test of predictive validity was used as the data were collected in semester one of the academic year Retrospective validity was tested using the number of grade 1s obtained at the CXC level examinations (Caribbean Examinations Council). Procedure Students in the introductory psychology class (PS10A) were asked to participate voluntarily in this study, and were given questionnaires with all the scales to fill out before lectures began. Consent forms were distributed and signed. Students did not receive an incentive for taking part in the study and were allowed to discontinue participation at any time. Identification numbers and addresses were requested for follow up studies with the same participants. 42

5 Self Efficacy in Jamaica Results Factorial validity The internal structure and factorial validity of the MSPSE were examined using principal components analysis (PCA) and principal axis factoring (PAF) methods, which produced similar results. Only the results from the PCA are reported here. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) was.758 which was an acceptable value for beginning the analyses. Table 1 compares the items which loaded on factors for two sets of analyses on the Jamaican sample, as well as the items from the original subscales from Bandura and the subscales from the Choi et al. study. The first set of analyses on the Jamaican sample involved testing the original Bandura scale by requesting nine factors in the factor analysis method. Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization produced the nine factors which cumulatively accounted for 53.48% of the variance (Table 2). All factors had eigenvalues over 1.00, with the first factor accounting for 17.61% of the variance. However, only seven of these factors could be interpreted sensibly (Table 1). Most items had factor loadings above.5, and those selected with loadings between.4 and.5 were chosen because they fell in logically with the factor structure. Items which did not load significantly or logically on definite factors were: how well can you make friends of the opposite sex?; how well can you live up to what peers expected of you?; how well can you learn social studies?; how well can you learn music skills?; how well can you do the things needed to work on the school newspaper?; how well can you control your temper?; how well can you live up to what parents expect of you?; how well can you resist peer pressure to have sexual intercourse?; and how well can you work in a group?. Interestingly, the items how well can you resist peer pressure to have sexual intercourse? and how well can you live up to what your parents expect of you? had loadings of.574 and.505 respectively on a factor separate from the other nine factors. This may point to a cultural difference in norms and values regarding sexual activity and parental expectations. These items were not selected as a separate factor, however, as there were only two items. The items which did not load consistently were deleted and another analysis requesting nine factors using the same extraction method was conducted. This accounted for a slight increase of variance explained (57.36%) and only three of the items were displaced from the factors extracted before the deletion (how well can you live up to what parents expect of you?; how well can you get friends to help you when you have social problems?; and how well can you do things to be part of school plays?. Factor loadings were similar in value for the other items. As illustrated in Table 1, only two factors strongly resembled those proposed by Bandura: self regulated learning, and self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure, while three factors did not appear to have equivalents in the Jamaican sample: social self efficacy, meet others expectations and 43

6 Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2004 enlisting social resources. All other factors were modified by having additional items loading or being omitted as seen in Table 1. The second set of analyses resulted in the acceptance of eight factors from a 12 factor solution. After a series of analyses, requesting 12 factors using principal components analysis and Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization produced a structure which was similar to the nine factors. The main difference between these extractions was in the separation of mathematics and science efficacy into mathematics self efficacy and science self efficacy (2 items each). Even though all 12 factors had eigenvalues over 1.00, and cumulatively accounted for 60.76% of the variance, only 8 of the factors could be interpreted sensibly (50.68% variance) (Table 1). Choi and colleagues extracted 10 factors after several analyses, which accounted for 58.8% of the variance, and an eigenvalue of for the first factor. This compares to an eigenvalue of for the Jamaican sample. Miller et al. extracted nine factors (Promax rotation with Varimax prerotation was used with k = 4) which accounted for 92% of the variance. Their first factor accounted for 18% of the variance. When Bandura s subscales are compared to those found in the Jamaican sample and those by Choi et al., substantial support is found for two factors: self regulated learning and self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure. However, the differences in items suggest cultural differences for many of the factors including regulation of learning between North American and Jamaican students. Bandura s and Choi et al. s study showed that study skills like using the library, using textbooks and taking class notes, as well as participating in class discussions are part of self regulatory learning efficacy for American students, but this did not prove true of the Jamaican sample. In terms of self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure, resisting pressure from peers to have sex and to control one s temper were problematic items which did not load significantly on any factor for Jamaicans. The reasons are unclear but may be due to cultural differences in parental expectations about sexual activity as well as ambiguity in the meaning of the item how well can you control your temper? Although many items were similar for Bandura s and Choi et al. s self assertive efficacy, the Jamaican data showed assertiveness to include participation and communication such as carrying on conversations, speaking to teachers about schoolwork and participating in class discussions, as well as participating in activities such as school plays and school government. The students own expectations of themselves also seem to relate to assertiveness efficacy itself, implying that assertiveness may have cultural value. For academic achievement, science and mathematics self efficacy items loaded on to one factor, while items relating to language and learning formed another factor for both the Choi 44

7 Self Efficacy in Jamaica et al. s study and the Jamaican data (nine-factor analysis). In the 12-factor analysis mathematics self efficacy and science self efficacy formed two separate factors, each with two items. These factors, although having good reliability should be developed by adding items which can be validated, since efficacy in mathematics and science seem to be of importance for Jamaican students, and appear separate from overall academic achievement. In terms of leisure, items which related to sports and physical activity separated themselves from the other leisure items in Bandura s original subscale. Activities such as being part of school plays and student government loaded unto the self assertive efficacy factor instead. Finally, of the three factors which did not have equivalents in the Jamaican sample, only two had equivalents in the Choi et al. s study (social self efficacy and meet others expectations), while 1 had no equivalent for either study (enlisting social resources) demonstrating that revision is needed if these dimensions of self efficacy are to be measured in the Jamaican academic context. Concurrent, predictive and retrospective validity Scores for the subscales of the 12-factor extraction were correlated with several variables to establish validity. Based on the criteria used by Heiman (2000), self assertion and participation efficacy were substantially correlated with assertiveness measured on the Rathus Assertiveness Scale (r = -.567, p <.01), likeability self concept (r =.418, p <.01) and power self concept (r =.513, p <.01), and moderately correlated with positive self esteem (r =.359, p <.01), task accomplishment self concept (r =.364, p <.01) and vulnerability self concept (r =.386, p =.01). Within the efficacy subscales, it was substantially associated with self regulated learning (r =.554, p <.01), self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure (r =.592, p <.01) and seeking support efficacy (r =.402, p <.01). Hence self assertion and participation efficacy does appear to be associated logically with other self dimensions. Self regulated learning correlated very strongly with task accomplishment self concept (r =.604, p <.01), and only weakly with the assertiveness measure (r = -.241, p <.01), positive self esteem (r =.220, p <.01), power self concept (r =.276, p <.01) and vulnerability self concept (r = -.261, p <.01). Within the subscales it was substantially associated with self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure (r =.480, p <.01) and learning and language skills efficacy (r =.476, p <.01). Self regulated learning efficacy was weakly correlated with GPA (r =.299, p <.05) and negligibly associated with number of grade 1s at CXC (r =.051, p <.05). Scores for GPA and number of grade 1s at CXC were only available for 64 and 73 persons respectively, which may have affected the reliability of the results. It should be noted that GPA scores depend on various factors other than self efficacy. Furthermore, achievement cannot reliably be predicted by a single measure. Summarily, there was strong support for the concurrent validity of self regulated learning with task 45

8 Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2004 accomplishment, weak support for its predictive validity and no support for its retrospective validity based on the measures used. Seeking support efficacy was only weakly correlated with assertiveness and likeability (r =.225, p <.01; r = -.262, p <.01 respectively). Self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure was weakly correlated with assertiveness, positive self esteem, vulnerability and likeability (r = -.223, p <.01; r =.250, p <.01; r = -.238, p <.01; r =.218, p <.01 respectively) but moderately associated with task accomplishment self concept (r = -.448, p <.01). Math self efficacy was weakly correlated with the number of grade 1s obtained at the CXC level (r =.271, p <.05), while science self efficacy was moderately correlated with learning and language skills efficacy (r =.300, p <.01). The latter two were both negligibly associated with GPA. Learning and language skills efficacy was moderately correlated with GPA (r =.350, p <.01), and weakly correlated with number of grade 1s at CXC level (r =.284, p <.05) and task accomplishment self concept (r =.260, p <.01). Sport/physical activity self efficacy was only weakly correlated with likeability self concept (r =.220, p <.01). Hence there is some support for the concurrent validity of self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure using task accomplishment self concept while learning and language skills efficacy had moderate predictive validity and weak retrospective validity. Reliability The Cronbach alpha values of reliability for the nine-factor and 12- factor analyses, as well as the alphas for Choi et al. are shown in Table 1. These scores give good support for the reliability of the subscales, with the lowest being.70. The Jamaican sample replicated the alphas from the other studies well. Discussion This current study demonstrated strong support for only two of Bandura s original subscales, moderate support for four, and no support for the remaining three. Cultural differences between Jamaican students and American students probably accounted for the differences found, which is partly supported by the similarities between Choi et al., and Bandura. Similarities between Choi et al. and the Jamaican sample, however, demonstrate problems with some of the subscales over both cultures. Additionally, there is some support for the concurrent, predictive and retrospective validity of some subscales of self efficacy tested here, although there were limitations to the predictive and retrospective validity measures used. Logical relationships were shown between dimensions of self efficacy and self concept, assertiveness and self esteem. Overall, many modifications need to be made to the MSPSE for application to the Jamaican student context, following further research. 46

9 Self Efficacy in Jamaica In conclusion, exploratory research into self efficacy in Jamaica may proceed in many directions, but should not proceed without some form of investigation into the meaning of the construct itself. Qualitative investigation can delve into phenomenological meanings and experiences in various community settings. Beginning to explore a quantitative measure of self efficacy requires selection and rigorous psychometric testing to ensure the validity of the measure for future research. Guidelines by Bandura (2001) and Pajares (in Maehr & Pintrich, 1997) may be quite useful in this regard. However, the issue of efficacy in the Caribbean is not simply a psychometric one, but is particularly salient in a region which has been shaped by slavery, colonialism, poverty, dependency, race and otherness. Beliefs in capabilities at the collective level are expected to relate to these experiences even today. Various domains of activity need to be investigated in terms of collective and personal efficacy: achievements in sport and academics, parenting, coping, managing illness, governance, work, identity construction, conflict resolution, collective action and leadership to name a few. Further research is required to enhance our knowledge of self efficacy and its related dimensions, as it may have consequences for development at the collective, interpersonal and personal levels. References Bandura, A. (1990). Multidimensional scales of perceived self-efficacy. Stanford, CA:Stanford University. Bandura, A. (1995). Self efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bandura, A. (2001). Guide for constructing self efficacy scales. Available online: (05/04/04) Bandura, A. (2002). Social cognitive theory in cultural context. Journal of Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51, Choi, N., Fuqua, D., & Griffin, B. (2001). Exploratory analysis of the structure of scores from the multidimensional scales of perceived selfefficacy. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, Heiman, G. W. (2000). Basic statistics for the behavioural sciences. 3 rd edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Kearney, P., Beatty, M. J., Plax, T. G., & McCroskey, J. C. (1984). Factor analysis of the Rathus assertiveness schedule and the personal report of communication apprehension: replication and extension. Psychological Reports, 54, Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1997). Discriminant and predictive validity of academic self-concept, academic self-efficacy, and mathematics-specific self- efficacy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, Miller, J. W., Coombs, W. T. & Fuqua, D. R. (1999). An examination of the psychometric properties of Bandura s multidimensional scales of 47

10 Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2004 perceived self- efficacy. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 31, Pajares. F. (1997). Current directions in self efficacy research. In Maehr,M.L. & Pintrich, P.R. (Eds.). Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Volume 10). London: JAI Press. Rathus, S. A. (1973). A 30-item schedule for assessing assertive behavior. Behavior Therapy, 4, Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Silver, B. B., Smith, E. V., & Greene, B.A., (2001). A study strategies selfefficacy instrument for use with community college students. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, Stake, J. E. (1994). Development and validation of the Six-Factor Self-Concept Scale for adults. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, Tomas, J. M. & Oliver, A. (1999). Rosenberg s Self Esteem Scale: two factors or method effects. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, Woodruff, S. L. & Cashman, J. E. (1993). Task, domain, and general efficacy: a reexamination of the self-efficacy scale. Psychological Reports, 72,

11 Table 1 Self Efficacy in Jamaica 49 Comparison of factor items from Jamaican sample with Bandura s (1990) and Choi et al. s (2001) subscales Bandura s (1990) Original Subscales Self regulated learning 1. finish homework assignments by deadlines 2. study when there are other interesting things to do 3. concentrate on school subjects 4. take class notes of class instruction 5. use the library to get information for class assignments 6. plan your school work 7. organize your school work 8. remember information presented in class and texts 9. arrange a place to study without distractions 10. motivate yourself to do schoolwork 11. participate in class discussions No equivalent Leisure time skill and extracurricular activities 1. learn sports skills 2. learn dance skills 3. learn music skills 4. do the kinds of things that are needed to work on the school newspaper 5. do the kinds of things needed to be a member of the school government 7. do the kinds of things needed to take part in school plays 8. do regular physical education activities 9. learn skills needed for team sports Choi et al., 2001 (Reported Alpha) Self regulated learning efficacy (.86),5,6,7,9,10 - stop yourself from skipping school when bored/upset Self efficacy for mathematics (PAF) 1. learn general mathematics 2. learn algebra Sports/physical self efficacy Items: 1,8,9 Jamaican Sample : 9 Factor Analysis (Subscale Alpha) Self regulated learning (.88) Items: 1,2,3,6,7,9,10 - live up to what your teachers expect of you Jamaican Sample : 12 Factor Analysis (Subscale Alpha) Self regulated learning (.88) Items: 1,2,3,6,7,9,10 - live up to what your teachers expect of you No equivalent Mathematics self efficacy (.85) 1. learn general mathematics 2. learn algebra Sport and physical activity efficacy (.78) Items: 1,2,8,9 Sport and physical activity efficacy (.78) Items: 1,2,8,9 Enlisting parental and community support Enlisting parental and adult Seeking support efficacy (.78) Seeking support efficacy (.75) 49

12 1. get parents to help with a problem 2. get brother or sister to help with a problem 3. get parents to take part in school activities 4. get people outside the school to take an interest in your school (community groups, churches) Self assertive efficacy 1. express opinions when other classmates disagree with you 2. stand up for yourself when you feel you are being treated unfairly 3. deal with situations where others are annoying you or hurting your feelings 4. stand firm to someone who is asking you to do something unreasonable or inconvenient Social self efficacy 1. make and keep friends of the opposite sex 2. make and keep friends of the same sex 3. carry on a conversation with others 4. work in a group support efficacy (.79) - get adults to help you with social problems Self assertive efficacy (.79) - participate in class discussions Social self efficacy (.76) - get another student to help you when stuck in schoolwork - get a friend to help you Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, get adults to help you with social problems - get student to help you with homework - get friends to help you with social problems Self assertion and participation efficacy (.82) - participate in class discussions - get teachers to help you when stuck in schoolwork - participate in class discussions - live up to what you expect of yourself carry on conversations with others - do things needed to be part of school government - make and keep friends of the same sex - do things to be part of school plays No equivalent - get adults to help you with social problems Self assertion and participation efficacy (.82) - participate in class discussions - get teachers to help you when stuck in schoolwork - participate in class discussions - live up to what you expect of yourself - carry on conversations with others - do things needed to be part of school government - make and keep friends of the same sex - do things to be part of school plays No equivalent 50

13 Self regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure 1. resist pressure to do things in school that can get you into trouble 2. stop yourself from skipping school when bored or upset 3. resist pressure to smoke cigarettes 4. resist pressure to drink beer, wine or liquor 5. resist pressure to smoke marijuana 6. resist pressure to use pills 7. resist pressure to use crack 8. resist pressure to have sexual intercourse 9. resist pressure to control your temper Meet others expectations 1. live up to what your parents expect of you 2. live up to what teachers expect of you 3. live up to what your peers expect of you 4. live up to what you expect of yourself Academic achievement 1. learn general mathematics 2. learn algebra 3. learn science 4. learn biology 5. learn reading and writing language skills 6. learn to use computers 7. learn a foreign language 8. learn social studies 9. learn English grammar No equivalent when you have social problems Self regulatory efficacy to resist high risk behaviours (.81) Items: 1,3,4,5,6,7,8, Self efficacy for meeting others expectations (.81) - control your temper Self efficacy for academic achievement (.72) (PCA) Self efficacy for science (PAF) Self regulatory efficacy in resisting peer pressure (.83),5,6,7 No equivalent Mathematics and science efficacy (.70) Self Efficacy in Jamaica 51 Self regulatory efficacy in resisting peer pressure (.83) Items: 1,2, 3,4,5,6,7 No equivalent No equivalent No equivalent Science self efficacy (.90) No equivalent 1. learn science 2. learn biology Self efficacy for communication (PCA) 1. learn reading and writing Learning and language skills efficacy (.74) 1. learn reading and writing 1. learn science 2. learn biology Learning and language skills efficacy (.73) 1. learn reading and writing 51

14 Enlisting social resources 1. get teachers to help you when you get stuck on schoolwork 2. get another student to help you when you get stuck on schoolwork 3. get adults to help you when you have social problems 4. get a friend to help you when you have social problem language skills 2. learn English grammar 3. do the kinds of things needed to work on school paper 4. do the kinds of things needed to be part of school government Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2004 language skills language skills 2. learn a foreign language 2. learn a foreign language 3. learn English grammar 3. learn English grammar 4. take class notes of class 4. take class notes of class instruction instruction 5. remember information 5. remember information presented in class and presented in class and textbooks textbooks 6. learn to use computers 6. learn to use computers 7. use library for class 7. use library for class assignments assignments No equivalent No equivalent No equivalent 52

15 Self Efficacy in Jamaica 53 Table 2 Rotated component Matrix for nine-factor solution in the Jamaican sample Initial Eigenvalues Component Total % of Variance Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total Cumulative % % of Variance Cumulative % % of Variance Cumulative %

16 Table 3 Caribbean Journal of Psychology, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 2004 Rotated Component Matrix for 12-factor solution in the Jamaican sample Initial Eigenvalues Component Total % of Variance Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total Cumulative % % of Variance Cumulative % % of Variance Cumulative %