Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids

Transcription

1 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page iv Chemistry: The Study of Change Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 1 38 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions Reactions in Aqueous Solutions Gases 172 Thermochemistry 230 Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms 276 Periodic Relationships Among the Elements 328 Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts 370 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 414 Physical Properties of Solutions Chemical Kinetics Acids and Bases Chemical Equilibrium Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 722 Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium 778 Electrochemistry 814 Nuclear Chemistry 864 Chemistry in the Atmosphere 902 Metallurgy and the Chemistry of Metals 932 Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds 958 Transition Metals Chemistry and Coordination Compounds Organic Chemistry 1027 Synthetic and Natural Organic Polymers Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix iv Derivation of the Names of Elements A-1 Units for the Gas Constant A-7 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25 C Mathematical Operations A-13 A-8 996

2 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page v List of Applications xix List of Animations xx Preface xxi Setting the Stage for Learning xxviii A Note to the Student xxxiii Chemistry: The Study of Change Chemistry: A Science for the Twenty-First Century 2 The Study of Chemistry 2 The Scientific Method 4 Primordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory Classifications of Matter 6 The Three States of Matter 9 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 10 Measurement 12 The Importance of Units Handling Numbers Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems Real-World Problem Solving: Information, Assumptions, and Simplifications 27 Key Equations 28 Summary of Facts & Concepts 29 Key Words 29 Questions & Problems 29 The Disappearance of the Dinosaurs 36 v

3 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page vi vi Atoms, Molecules, and Ions The Atomic Theory 39 The Structure of the Atom 40 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes 46 The Periodic Table 48 Distribution of Elements on Earth and in Living Systems Molecules and Ions 50 Chemical Formulas 52 Naming Compounds 56 Introduction to Organic Compounds 65 Key Equation 67 Summary of Facts & Concepts 67 Key Words 67 Questions & Problems 68 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions Atomic Mass 76 Avogadro s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element 77 Molecular Mass 81 The Mass Spectrometer 84 Percent Composition of Compounds 85 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas 88 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 90 Amounts of Reactants and Products 95 Limiting Reagents 99 Reaction Yield 103 Chemical Fertilizers 105 Key Equations 106 Summary of Facts & Concepts 106 Key Words 107 Questions & Problems 107

4 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page vii Reactions in Aqueous Solutions General Properties of Aqueous Solutions 119 Precipitation Reactions 121 An Undesirable Precipitation Reaction Acid-Base Reactions 126 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 132 Breathalyzer Concentration of Solutions 145 Gravimetric Analysis 149 Acid-Base Titrations 151 Redox Titrations 155 Metal from the Sea 156 Key Equations 157 Summary of Facts & Concepts 157 Key Words 158 Questions & Problems 158 Who Killed Napoleon? 170 Gases Substances That Exist as Gases 173 Pressure of a Gas 174 The Gas Laws 178 The Ideal Gas Equation 184 Gas Stoichiometry 193 Dalton s Law of Partial Pressures 195 Scuba Diving and the Gas Laws The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 202 Super Cold Atoms Deviation from Ideal Behavior 210 Key Equations 213 Summary of Facts & Concepts 214 Key Words 214 Questions & Problems 215 Out of Oxygen 228 vii

5 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page viii viii Thermochemistry The Nature of Energy and Types of Energy 231 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 232 Introduction to Thermodynamics 234 Making Snow and Inflating a Bicycle Tire Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions 240 Calorimetry 246 White Fat Cells, Brown Fat Cells, and a Potential Cure for Obesity Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction 254 How a Bombardier Beetle Defends Itself Heat of Solution and Dilution 260 Key Equations 263 Summary of Facts & Concepts 263 Key Words 263 Questions & Problems 264 The Exploding Tire 274 Quantum Theory and the Electronic Structure of Atoms From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory 277 The Photoelectric Effect 281 Bohr s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 284 The Dual Nature of the Electron 289 Laser The Splendid Light Quantum Mechanics 293 Electron Microscopy Quantum Numbers 297 Atomic Orbitals 299 Electron Configuration 303

6 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page ix 7.9 The Building-Up Principle 310 Quantum Dots 314 Key Equations 315 Summary of Facts & Concepts 316 Key Words 317 Questions & Problems 317 Discovery of Helium and the Rise and Fall of Coronium 326 Periodic Relationships Among the Elements Development of the Periodic Table 329 Periodic Classification of the Elements 331 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties 335 Ionization Energy 342 The Third Liquid Element? Electron Affinity 347 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative Elements 349 Discovery of the Noble Gases 360 Key Equation 361 Summary of Facts & Concepts 361 Key Words 362 Questions & Problems 362 Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts Lewis Dot Symbols 371 The Ionic Bond 372 Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds 374 Sodium Chloride A Common and Important Ionic Compound The Covalent Bond 379 Electronegativity 382 Writing Lewis Structures 386 Formal Charge and Lewis Structure 389 ix

7 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page x x The Concept of Resonance 392 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 394 Just Say NO Bond Enthalpy 400 Key Equation 405 Summary of Facts & Concepts 405 Key Words 405 Questions & Problems 405 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals Molecular Geometry Dipole Moment 425 Microwave Ovens Dipole Moments at Work Valance Bond Theory 431 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 433 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds 442 Molecular Orbital Theory 445 Molecular Orbital Configurations 448 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals 454 Buckyball, Anyone? 456 Key Equations 458 Summary of Facts & Concepts 458 Key Words 458 Questions & Problems 459 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and Solids 468 Intermolecular Forces 469 Properties of Liquids 475 Crystal Structure 478 Why Do Lakes Freeze from the Top Down? X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals 486

8 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xi 11.6 Types of Crystals 488 High-Temperature Superconductors 490 And All for the Want of a Button Amorphous Solids Phase Changes Phase Diagrams 505 Hard-Boiling an Egg on a Mountaintop, Pressure Cookers, and Ice Skating 507 Liquid Crystals 508 Key Equations 510 Summary of Facts & Concepts 510 Key Words 511 Questions & Problems 511 Physical Properties of Solutions Types of Solutions 521 A Molecular View of the Solution Process 522 Concentration Units 524 The Effect of Temperature on Solubility 529 The Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases 531 The Killer Lake Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 546 Dialysis Colloids 548 Key Equations 551 Summary of Facts & Concepts 551 Key Words 552 Questions & Problems 552 The Wrong Knife 562 xi

9 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xii xii Chemical Kinetics The Rate of a Reaction The Rate Law The Relation Between Reactant Concentration and Time 577 Radiocarbon Dating Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants Reaction Mechanisms Catalysis 601 Pharmacokinetics 608 Key Equations 610 Summary of Facts & Concepts 610 Key Words 611 Questions & Problems 611 Chemical Equilibrium The Concept of Equilibrium and the Equilibrium Constant Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions The Relationship Between Chemical Kinetics and Chemical Equilibrium What Does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us? Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium 646 Life at High Altitudes and Hemoglobin Production 653 The Haber Process 654 Key Equations 656 Summary of Facts & Concepts 656 Key Words 657 Questions & Problems 657 Acids and Bases Brønsted Acids and Bases 669 The Acid-Base Properties of Water 670 ph A Measure of Acidity 672 Strength of Acids and Bases 675 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants 679 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants 687 The Relationship Between the Ionization Constants of Acids and Their Conjugate Bases 689

10 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xiii 15.8 Diprotic and Polyprotic Acids Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids Acid-Base Properties of Salts Acid-Base Properties of Oxides and Hydroxides Lewis Acids and Bases 706 Antacids and the ph Balance in Your Stomach 708 Key Equations 710 Summary of Facts & Concepts 711 Key Words 711 Questions & Problems 711 Decaying Papers 720 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous Solution Equilibria 723 The Common Ion Effect 723 Buffer Solutions 726 Acid-Base Titrations 732 Maintaining the ph of Blood Acid-Base Indicators Solubility Equilibria Separation of Ions by Fractional Precipitation The Common Ion Effect and Solubility ph and Solubility Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility 758 How an Eggshell Is Formed Application of the Solubility Product Principle to Qualitative Analysis 763 Key Equation 765 Summary of Facts & Concepts 766 Key Words 766 Questions & Problems 766 A Hard-Boiled Snack 776 xiii

11 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xiv xiv Entropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium The Three Laws of Thermodynamics 779 Spontaneous Processes 779 Entropy 780 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 785 Gibbs Free Energy 791 The Efficiency of Heat Engines Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium Thermodynamics in Living Systems 802 The Thermodynamics of a Rubber Band 803 Key Equations 805 Summary of Facts & Concepts 805 Key Words 805 Questions & Problems 806 Electrochemistry Redox Reactions 815 Galvanic Cells 818 Standard Reduction Potentials 820 Thermodynamics of Redox Reactions 826 The Effect of Concentration of Cell Emf 829 Batteries 834 Bacteria Power Corrosion Electrolysis 843 Dental Filling Discomfort 848 Key Equations 850 Summary of Facts & Concepts 850 Key Words 851 Questions & Problems 851 Tainted Water 862

12 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xv Nuclear Chemistry The Nature of Nuclear Reactions 865 Nuclear Stability 867 Natural Radioactivity 872 Nuclear Transmutation 876 Nuclear Fission 879 Nature s Own Fission Reactor Nuclear Fusion Uses of Isotopes Biological Effects of Radiation 890 Food Irradiation 892 Key Equations 892 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy 893 Summary of Facts & Concepts 893 Key Words 894 Questions & Problems 894 The Art Forgery of the Twentieth Century 900 Chemistry in the Atmosphere Earth s Atmosphere 903 Phenomena in the Outer Layers of the Atmosphere 906 Depletion of Ozone in the Stratosphere 908 Volcanoes 913 The Greenhouse Effect 914 Acid Rain 918 Photochemical Smog 921 Indoor Pollution 923 Summary of Facts & Concepts 926 Key Words 927 Questions & Problems 927 xv

13 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xvi xvi Metallurgy and the Chemistry of Metals Occurrence of Metals 933 Metallurgical Processes 934 Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity 941 Periodic Trends in Metallic Properties 943 The Alkali Metals 944 The Alkaline Earth Metals 948 Aluminum 950 Recycling Aluminum 952 Summary of Facts & Concepts 954 Key Words 954 Questions & Problems 954 Nonmetallic Elements and Their Compounds General Properties of Nonmetals Hydrogen 960 Metallic Hydrogen Carbon 965 Synthetic Gas from Coal Nitrogen and Phosphorus 969 Ammonium Nitrate The Explosive Fertilizer Oxygen and Sulfur The Halogens 984 Summary of Facts & Concepts 991 Key Words 991 Questions & Problems 992

14 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xvii Transition Metals Chemistry and Coordination Compounds Properties of the Transition Metals 997 Chemistry of Iron and Copper 1000 Coordination Compounds 1002 Structure of Coordination Compounds 1007 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory 1011 Reactions of Coordination Compounds 1017 Coordination Compounds in Living Systems Applications of Coordination Compounds 1018 Cisplatin The Anticancer Drug 1020 Key Equation 1022 Summary of Facts & Concepts 1022 Key Words 1022 Questions & Problems 1023 Organic Chemistry Classes of Organic Compounds Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 1028 Ice That Burns Aromatic Hydrocarbons Chemistry of the Functional Groups 1044 The Petroleum Industry 1050 Summary of Facts & Concepts 1052 Key Words 1053 Questions & Problems 1053 The Disappearing Fingerprints 1058 xvii

15 cha02680_fm_i-xxxiv.indd Page xviii xviii Synthetic and Natural Organic Polymers Properties of Polymers Synthetic Organic Polymers Proteins 1067 Sickle Cell Anemia A Molecular Disease Nucleic Acids 1075 DNA Fingerprinting 1078 Summary of Facts & Concepts 1079 Key Words 1079 Questions & Problems 1079 A Story That Will Curl Your Hair 1084 Appendix 1 Derivation of the Names of Elements A-1 Appendix 2 Units for the Gas Constant A-7 Appendix 3 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25 C A-8 Appendix 4 Mathematical Operations A-13 Glossary G-1 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems AP-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1