Employees well-being and job embeddedness: a Malaysian Study

Transcription

1 Page 1 of 22 ANZAM 2011 Employees well-being and job embeddedness: a Malaysian Study Dr Mary Bambacas International Graduate School of Business, University of South Australia, mary.bambacas@unisa.edu.au

2 ANZAM 2011 Page 2 of 22 Employees well-being and job embeddedness: a Malaysian Study ABSTRACT This study explores how managers and professionals become embedded in their organisation and community. In particular we investigate the mediating effects feelings of well-being and sacrifice between the links and fit dimensions of job embeddedness and employee turnover intentions. Hypotheses are tested using data from 296 professional staff in Malaysia. As predicted, a good match between individuals and their organisation and community increased levels of well-being. However, people became embedded by the perceived sacrifice to be made in leaving. Organisations hoping to increase organisation embeddedness may experience the greatest success by enhancing fit with the organisation rather than the community to deter intentions of leaving. Keywords: job embeddedness, well-being, career satisfaction, life satisfaction, turnover intentions The steel industry in Malaysia is a major contributor to its economic growth, and has a growing employee base (Malaysia Ministry of International Trade and Industry 2010). Demand for professional management skills to accommodate this progress is outstripping supply (Ramasamy & Rowley 2011). The problem has escalated to very severe (p214) and is complicated by high labour turnover (Malaysian Employers Federation 2005). Consequently, how to retain professional staff with valued skills is becoming a priority in Malaysia. Furthermore, the aging population and falling fertility rates (reduction in the proportion of new births) have increased the dependency burden on those working (and their well-being). Staff s well-being is in the best interest of employers (i.e. improves financial gains; Bakke 2005) and employees (i.e. allows employees develop and achieve their full potential; Tehrani, Humpage, Willmott & Haslam 2007). Thus organisations enhance performance and thereby assure survival. Consequently, organisations need to promote the well-being of their professional staff so they may stay and contribute (Tan 2010) rather than react negatively to well-being threats and leave (Pol, Dimasso, Castechini, Bonet & Vidal 2006). Prevention of turnover has been investigated by way of job embeddedness and employee well-being. Job embeddedness theory describes the networks employees form, which promotes their stuckness (Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, ablynski & Erez 2001: 1105) and constrains departure. Thus, employees become embedded by the degree to which they have connections with other people (links), the degree to which their jobs and communities are similar to themselves (fit) and the ease with which they can leave given what they would need to give up leaving their organisations and homes 1

3 Page 3 of 22 ANZAM 2011 (sacrifice) which minimizes turnover intentions. In contrast to earlier research on turnover, job embeddedness adds to the prediction of turnover beyond traditional variables (Mitchell et al. 2001). In addition, employee well-being explains feeling good in different life domains (Lent & Brown 2008: 8). Career and life satisfaction are important indicators of the work and non-work domains that improve employee well-being. In essence, employees gauge their well-being according to progress of their career (career satisfaction) and satisfaction of the overarching outcome of their life experience (life satisfaction; Andrews 1974 ). Well-being adds to the job embeddedness theoretical framework, by considering how happiness with career and life may act to embed employees. Job embeddedness and well-being reduce turnover, but how might managers promote job embeddedness and well-being? Becker s (1960) side-bet theory suggests that social exchanges accrue benefits (accumulate side-bets) which are lost when leaving. Building beneficial relationships (links) and a good fit is generally associated with increased side-bets which accrue over time intensifying the desire to stay. Similarly, environments congruent with individuals skills and interests, provide career satisfaction (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman & Johnson 2005), and improve life satisfaction (Dai 2009) increasing the benefits forgone were they to leave. Thus, it is important to investigate how the patterns of these beneficial associations embed individuals. Regrettably, few studies consider how these associations improve job embeddedness and retention (Ramesh & Gelfand 2010). Consequently, this research investigates how the links, the fit and the sacrifice (dimensions of job embeddedness), and career and life satisfaction (well being dimensions) interact with one another to embed employees in organisations and the community so as to deter turnover. Further, this research investigates how the interaction between job embeddedness at the organisation level impacts on job embeddedness at the community level and turnover (see Figure 1). [Insert Figure 1 here] Job embeddedness (JE) JE focuses on the social network of forces that connect employees to their jobs and indicates why they stay (Mitchell et al. 2001). The number and intensity of forces constrain movement and encourage a form of stuckness (p1105) which embeds employees within organisations and communities and deters their eagerness to leave. There are three critical aspects of JE theory (links, fit 2

4 ANZAM 2011 Page 4 of 22 and sacrifice) that act as the web which embed employees. Links are connections, between people in their institutions and communities, which form a web of social, psychological or financial ties where individuals work and live (Mitchell et al. 2001). The greater the number and intensity of connections employees have, the greater the complexity of the ties that prevent them from cutting those links and moving away (Ramesh & Gelfand 2010). The second aspect of JE, fit, is an employees perceived compatibility or comfort with his or her environment (Holtom & O'Neill 2004; Mitchell et al. 2001): 218). Hence, employees values, career goals and plans are consistent with the broader culture and demands of their job and community. For instance, a match between employee and organisational values reduced turnover (Ramesh & Gelfand 2010) while congruence between individuals in the US Air Force and their community deterred leaving their community (Heilmann 2005). The greater the fit the greater the chance individuals will be tied to their environment (Da Silva, Hutcheson & Wahl 2010). Sacrifice, the final aspect of JE, is characterized by the perceived cost of material or psychological benefits that may be forfeited by leaving a job (Mitchell et al. 2001)1105). The losses employees incur when leaving organisations (e.g., advancement prospects) or communities (e.g., vicinity of friends and family) deters departure. For example, employees in a manufacturing plant did not consider departure, as it meant sacrificing a supportive environment (Dawley, Houghton & Bucklew 2010). Further, professional staff of a medical laboratory decided to stay, rather than sacrifice involvement in the community (Thompson & Terpening 1983). This infers that individuals deter their departure when accrued benefits will be sacrificed. In summary, employees become embedded by the forces that entangle them in the environment where they work and live. The connections they have cultivated, the fit they have made, and the benefits they would forgo in leaving stimulate their desire to stay. Well-being - Career satisfaction and life satisfaction Retention literature also focuses on employees well-being. Career and life satisfaction are important indicators of well-being in the work and non-work domain (Lent & Brown 2008) and assist organisations to retain staff. Career satisfaction describes the individual s satisfaction with their career 3

5 Page 5 of 22 ANZAM 2011 as a whole (Lounsbury, Park, Sundstrom, Wiliamson, &Pemberton 2004). Life satisfaction, another important component of well-being evaluates a global understanding of individuals quality of life (Warr, Cook & Wall 1979). People s evaluations are based on indicators in the work context (such as career satisfaction) and non-work context (life satisfaction). Employees decide whether to stay or leave organisations from feelings about these contexts. The connections employees make and the relationships they build increases their social networks and improves developmental opportunities which contribute to career satisfaction (Wolff & Moser 2009). Thus, an environment that accommodates employee needs becomes a sacrifice employees do not want to abandon (Dawley et al. 2010). Similarly, employee compatibility with their environment improves career progress and satisfaction (Rasdi, Ismail, Uli & Noah 2009). A good match between employees and their organisation enhances the learning opportunities and assists the behavioural changes which improve their performance and their career progress. Consequently, an individual s compatibility with the organisation is positively related to career satisfaction (Griffin & Hesketh 2003; Kristof-Brownet al. 2005). When employee values are congruent with those of the organisation, the supportive environment raises personal sacrifice (Dawley et al. 2010). Therefore, we expect that the strength of the organisation links and fit dimensions of JE will impact career satisfaction and increase the organisation sacrifice dimension of JE. It follows that: Hypothesis1a (H1a): The relationship between the organisational links dimension of JE and organisational sacrifice dimension of JE will be mediated by career satisfaction. Hypothesis1b (H1b): The relationship between the organisational fit dimension of JE and organisational sacrifice dimension of JE will be mediated by career satisfaction. The quality of links between people, their families and communities affects their quality of life. Consequently, social relationships with friends, relatives and neighbours improve people s life satisfaction (Powdthavee 2008). People who fit into their environment are also satisfied with their quality of life (Moser 2009). Drawing on the expectancy theory (Vroom 1964), we anticipate that when individual-environment fit corresponds to their expectations, this congruence would be the motivating force to maintain the satisfying situation. Individuals satisfied with their circumstances are less likely to sacrifice the current environment and leave (Vandenberghe & Tremblay 2008). 4

6 ANZAM 2011 Page 6 of 22 Therefore, we expect that the community links and fit dimensions of JE will impact life satisfaction and increase the community sacrifice dimension of JE. We predict that: Hypothesis2a (H2a): The relationship between the community links dimension of JE and the community sacrifice dimension of JE will be mediated by life satisfaction. Hypothesis2b (H2b): The relationship between the community fit dimension of JE and the community sacrifice dimension of JE will be mediated by life satisfaction. In addition, individual s congruence with the work environment is associated with improved career satisfaction (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). So a good fit congruence between employees and their organisation improves levels of employee satisfaction with their careers. Becoming satisfied with life in general is a consequence of satisfaction with one s career (Verbruggen & Sels 2010). Therefore we expect that the organisation fit dimension of JE will impact career satisfaction increasing life satisfaction. We suggest: Hypothesis2c (H2c): The relationship between the organisation fit dimension of JE and life satisfaction will be mediated by career satisfaction. Fit, sacrifice and turnover intentions The person-environment fit theoretical framework has been used widely in the organisational sciences (Edwards, Caplan & Harrison 1998; Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). It proposes that individuals choose to work and live in environments with values congruent to their own. Settings that accommodate the unique needs of individuals are tangible evidence of a good fit (Kristof 1996). Individuals who experience a strong fit with their location in terms of value congruence are less likely to leave (Moynihan & Pandey 2007). An employee who leaves an environment that offers value correspondence also sacrifices access to development opportunities (Wang, Chen, Hyde & Hsieh 2010). Therefore, we expect that the fit dimension of JE, will also impact on the sacrifice dimension of JE deterring withdrawal and propose that: Hypothesis 3a (H3a): The relationship between the organisation fit dimension of JE and turnover intention will be mediated by the organisation sacrifice dimension of JE. Further, value congruence (fit) between individuals and the community in which they reside may also be a source of sacrifice. Leaving people who have similar characteristics, which mirror their own values and with whom they socialise is costly (Lai & Siu 2006) and making a personal sacrifice reduces intentions of leaving (Dawley, Houghton & Bucklew 2010). Lai & Siu (2006) suggest that organisations in 5

7 Page 7 of 22 ANZAM 2011 China keep employees in the same community groups after relocation (e.g. the same group housing estates), so as to minimize the sacrifice employees will make when relocating (e.g. leaving their community). Consequently, there is merit in examining how the sacrifice individuals perceive in leaving a good match with their community embeds them in their community and deters their departure. We suggest that the fit dimension of JE with the community will increase the sacrifice dimension of JE. However, sacrifice dimension of JE may embed employees in their communities while displacing them from the organisation. We therefore propose that: Hypothesis 3b (H3b): The community fit dimension of JE will increase perceptions of sacrifice, but higher perceptions of sacrifice will increase their intentions to leave the organisation. Organisation and community sacrifice relationships and turnover intentions As we have indicated elsewhere, a good fit with the organisation increases the sacrifice to be made when leaving, deterring exodus (Dawley et al. 2010). Consistent with social exchange theory and the accrual of side-bets the sacrifice (i.e. a good fit) individuals make at the organisation level, would also increase the losses at the community level discouraging intentions to leave. However, family ties (embedding individuals in their communities) may outweigh those provided by organisations (Lacity, Iyer & Rudramuniyaiah 2007; Tsui & Farh 1997). We therefore suggest that individuals embedded in their communities, choose to sacrifice the organisation rather than the community. Based on this research, we suggest that the sacrifice managers make when leaving the organisation is associated with the sacrifice made when leaving the community. However, the losses individuals incur in leaving the community would defer their departure encouraging them to remain. We propose the following: Hypothesis 4 (H4): The organisation sacrifice dimension of JE will increase the community sacrifice dimension of JE, but higher perceptions of community sacrifice will increase their intentions to leave the organisation. METHOD Participants and procedure A sample was drawn from three steel manufacturing organisations in Malaysia. This sample was particularly suitable as the steel industry typically has problems retaining professional and 6

8 ANZAM 2011 Page 8 of 22 managerial staff. Surveys were in English as it is Malaysia s working language (McArthur 2003). Participation was voluntary and each organisation distributed surveys through its HR department. In total, 296 of the 650 surveys were usable with a 45.5% response rate. Of the 296 respondents 198 (67.1%) were male, 190 (64.2%) were between 21 and 35 years of age, and 190 (66.9%) were with the organisation between 0-3 years. The majority of respondents (70.4%) were composed of professionals such as engineers with the organisation for up to 3 and accountants with a smaller segment of middle management (section heads, 16.7%). In addition, the majority of participants (75.1%) had attained a diploma and degree qualification. Measures The study employed established measures for all constructs. Managers were asked to evaluate career and life satisfaction, turnover intentions and job embeddedness. Items are listed in the Appendix. Career satisfaction was measured using three items from Greenhaus, Parasuraman & Wormley s (1990) scale (e.g. the success I have achieved ). Life satisfaction was assessed using Warr et al. s (1979) scale. Two factors were identified, one factor comprising three items associated with satisfaction with living conditions (e.g the local district that you live in ) and a second comprising four items and general life satisfaction (e.g our social life ). Turnover intentions (TI) were assessed using three items from Peters, Jackofsky & Salter s (1981) turnover intention scale. Respondents indicated their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements using a scale ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (7) strongly agree, with (4) indicating neither agree nor disagree. Job embeddedness A composite variable for each dimension of the organisation and community JE constructs (links, fit sacrifice) were created according to Mitchell & Lee s (2001) scales. We assessed the organisation JE dimensions as follows: Links dimension was assessed using six items (e.g. number of years in your present position ). Fit was measured using six items (e.g. I fit with organization s culture. Sacrifice was measured using eight items (e.g. he perks on this job are outstanding ). We assessed the community JE dimensions as follows: Links dimension, was assessed using five items (e.g. are you 7

9 Page 9 of 22 ANZAM 2011 married? ). Fit was measured using six items (e.g. I really love the place where I live. Sacrifice was measured using three items (e.g. My neighborhood is safe ). Control variables Given that we wanted to investigate how the relationship between the dimensions of job embeddedness may influence employee retention, we sought to control for variables that may influence this relationship. These control variables included two demographic characteristics: age (measured in years) and management level (measured as a four-level variable encompassing top, middle, and lower level management positions and professional staff). The model included these employee demographic variables so that the effects were not based on employee differences. RESULTS Table1 displays the means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations for the study variables. [Insert Table 1 here] To test the hypothesized relationships of our model we utilized Mplus 5.21 and a two-step approach for Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) (Anderson & Gerbing 1988). As suggested by Mitchell et al. (2001) we conceptualized the JE dimensions as formative scales. Hence, in our modelling we treated the well-being components as reflective constructs (multi-indicator latent variables) and JE dimensions and TI as formative constructs (a composite of each dimension). Standard psychometric tests are not appropriate for formative scales (Crossley, Bennett, Jex & Burnfield 2007). A full measurement model of the well-being components was evaluated for discriminant validity. Six indicators were used to test model fit, including chi-square (χ²), normed chi-square (χ²/df), a more widely used indicator, values close to 1 indicating a good fit. Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), with values between 0 and 1 being acceptable and indicating a reasonable fit (Byrne 2001). Lastly, the Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and the Standardized Mean-Square Residual (SRMR) should be less than.05 for a good fit (Kline 1998). The measurement model suggested a good fit with a χ² (32, (N = 296) = 69.68, p =.000, χ²/df = 2.17, CFI =0.96, TLI =0.95, RMSEA =0.07, SRMR=0.05. Next, we tested our hypothesized structural model comparing a fully and partially mediated model (Anderson & Gerbing 1988). Table 2 reports indices of the nested structural models fit and includes the 8

10 ANZAM 2011 Page 10 of 22 Bayesian statistic (BIC) which provides an improved assessment of the evidence of a hypothesis than P- values (Raftery 1995: 155). The proposed mediated model fit the data well χ² (125 (N = 296) = , p =.000, χ²/df = 2.06, CFI =0.95, TLI =0.92, RMSEA =0.06, SRMR=0.07. A comparison between the proposed and fully mediated model led to a significant chi-square difference and a better fit (the model with more paths explains the data better). The BIC approximation for comparison between the fully mediated model and the final model ( =293.59) also indicated that the proposed model is more parsimonious and fits the data well. [Insert Table 2 and figure 2here] According to the estimates of the parameters (Figure 2) there was not a significant relationship between the links dimensions of JE and career and life satisfactions. As expected, the strength of the relationships between the fit dimensions of JE and career and life satisfaction was significant. However, the mediating effect of career (H1a and H1b) and life satisfaction (H2a and H2b) between the relationships of the links-sacrifice and fit-sacrifice dimensions of JE at the organisation and community levels was not supported. Further, career satisfaction mediated the organisation fit-life satisfaction relationship supporting H2c. H3a and H3b were supported as there was a significant relationship between the fit and sacrifice dimensions of JE (β =.72, p.001; β =.50, p.001) as well as significant relationships between the sacrifice dimension of JE and TI (β = -.59, p.001; β =.14, p.05). As anticipated the sacrifice dimensions of JE mediated the relationship between the fit dimensions of JE and TI relationship (H3a and H3b). Lastly, the organisation sacrifice dimension of JE increased the community sacrifice dimension of JE while higher levels of community sacrifice increased intentions to leave the organisation (H4). Lastly, the Sobel Test (Sobel 1982) results revealed that mediation was evident for H2c, H3a, H3b and H4. DISCUSSION Retention is one of the most researched topics in organisations. Paradoxically, at a time of rising demand and declining annual projections for skilled educated workers, literature on how organisations may strengthen the web that ties employees to the organisation is sparse. In particular, little is known how the links employees establish, the fit they develop, the sacrifice they perceive when leaving as well as how their well-being (career and life satisfaction) interact with one another to 9

11 Page 11 of 22 ANZAM 2011 embed individuals in organisations and communities. We responded to the call from a number of researchers to broaden our investigation into the factors that influence employee retention and embed them in organisations (Mitchell et al. 2001; Ramesh & Gelfand 2010). This study expands our understanding of the interaction between dimensions of JE and wellbeing. The aim was to study how employees links, fit and sacrifice dimensions of JE as well as career and life satisfaction interact to embed employees in organisations and communities and decrease their TI. Overall, our findings partially support our proposed model and hypotheses. Our contribution is attributed to the development and support of a framework that can explain how people become embedded in their organisations and communities. First, the congruence between individuals and their environment rather than the relationships they develop embeds them in organisations and communities. Specifically, it is the strength of the sacrifice they feel they would make in leaving that compels them to stay or leave. Literature abounds on the importance of individuals working and living in environments that have values congruent to their own (Edwards et al. 1998; Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Nevertheless, little is said about the sacrifice individuals make when they have to leave a complementary environment. Our study suggests that tangible benefits from a superior fit environment (which may be the place where individuals work or live) induces high costs when leaving and embeds employees in the organisation and the community. Employees make investments in developing and maintaining a good fit with the setting they are in and according to Becker s (1960) side-bet theory would increase the cost of leaving and would prevent exiting. Second, our respondents match with the environment enhanced their feelings of well-being. Consistent with literature our participants career satisfaction was improved as the match with their organisation was enhanced (Griffin & Hesketh 2003; Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Their life satisfaction was also associated with their career satisfaction so that their life satisfaction heightened as their career satisfaction improved. Well-being however, did not embed them at work or in their social setting. In fact, career success was not linked to the sacrifice they would make if they left the organisation. This is consistent with today s mobile managers who leave organisations pursuing their career needs as and when opportunities arise (Buchanan, Kim & Basham 2007; Zhao & Zhou 2008). Our sample of professionals was no exception to the global and Malaysian workforce mobility trends 10

12 ANZAM 2011 Page 12 of 22 (Malaysian Employers Federation 2005). Also, life satisfaction was not associated with the sacrifice individuals would make were they to leave their community. People s attitudes and behaviours vary across cultures, belonging to an in-group being important in the collectivist context (Hoppe 2004; Triandis & Suh 2002 ).Our rsults illustrated a stronger relationship between the community fitsacrifice relationship than the community fit-life satisfaction relationship. This suggests that fitting in is more important than individual concerns about oneself and the satisfaction of one s life. Thus the sacrifice of the fit with the community embeds our respondents rather than their perceived quality of life as its benefits would be lost when leaving. Third, the connections which develop between people, organisations and their communities may not be enough to enmesh individuals to these environments. The number and strength of contacts binds individuals to the groups at work and outside work with which they associate (Mitchell et al. 2001). However, these connections may not be associated with TI (Crossley et al. 2007; Cunningham, Fink & Sagas 2005; Mallol, Holtom & Lee 2007; Mitchell et al. 2001). Leaving one organisation for another does not mean that individuals have to surrender the relationships they have established. So, leaving the organisation does not necessarily sacrifice connections with colleagues and community. Therefore helping individuals develop connections in and outside the workplace may not be sufficient to embed them and assist their retention. Lastly, as expected, a good match between managers and the organisation increased the perceived cost of leaving embedding them in the organisation and deterring their departure. Alternately, a good fit with the community embedded respondents in their community encouraging their organisational withdrawal. According to Heilmann (2005) individuals value the fit to their community such that the thought of leaving is lessened by their desire to remain enmeshed in their community. She observed that air force personnel remained embedded in their communities (where there was a strong match) because the cost of leaving was high. This implies that individuals may become embedded in their communities not leaving their community when there is a superior fit. As in all studies there are some limitations that need to be mentioned. First, the generalizability of the results may not be applicable to different ethnic milieus. Cross-cultural differences in values and relationships are evident between collectivistic (such as Malaysia) and 11

13 Page 13 of 22 ANZAM 2011 individualistic cultures (such as United States) (Ramesh & Gelfand 2010). Consequently, employees who need to be relocated in a collectivist culture may leave their organisations rather than leave their family and community (Tsui & Farh 1997). In addition, using professionals and managers in sampling limits the findings application to other workplace groups. Moreover the relationship between sacrifice and turnover intentions does not necessarily mean that the costs associated with leaving will necessarily deter withdrawal. Intentions of leaving the organisation do not necessarily translate to quitting. Future research needs to investigate the sacrifice individuals make when leaving their community which influences their organisational departure. Organisation need to improve retention of professional staff at a time of a slowdown in skilled educated workers and a rise in demand (Hilton 2008). Finally, in order to strengthen the confidence in causal ordering the data could be collected at three different times one for each of the independent, mediator and dependent variables. CONCLUSION Given the interest in retaining professional and managerial staff there is a need for research into how organisations may embed employees in organisations and minimize TI. In particular, how feelings of well-being and the link and fit dimensions of job embeddedness impact on the cost of leaving which affect intentions of withdrawing from the organisation needs further attention. This study has demonstrated that a good fit with the organisation and community amplifies career and life satisfaction. However it is the perceived sacrifice that employees would make were they to leave the match with the organisation and community that embeds them in the respective environments. Future research needs to focus on the implications that a good fit with the community has on the sacrifice individuals would make were they to leave that magnifies intentions of leaving the organisation. This has serious repercussions for organisations. Future research needs to devote attention to how organisations may embed employees so that intentions of leaving are curtailed reducing turnover. 12

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18 ANZAM 2011 Page 18 of 22 TABLE 1: MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, RELIABILITY, COEFFICIENT ALPHA and INTER CORRELATION MATRIX 1 Employment status Age Mean SD Career satisfaction (.87) 4 Life satisfaction (living conditions ** (.87) 5Life satisfaction (general) **.74 ** (.78) 6 Organisational links of job embeddedness 7 Community links of job embeddedness 8 Organisational fit dimension of job embeddedness 9 Community fit dimension of job embeddedness 10 Organisational sacrifice dimension of job embeddedness 11 Community sacrifice dimension of job embeddedness ** ** ** *.20 * **.17 * * **.21 **.20 **.26 **.59 ** *.22 **.15 *.18 * **.45 ** * *.25 ** -.14 *.60 **.65 **.53 ** 12 Turnover intentions ** * -.14 *.14 * **.25 **.51 **.20 ** (.89) Notes: N=296; * p< 0.05, ** p< Coefficient Alpha reliability for latent variables on the diagonal in parentheses. 17

19 Page 19 of 22 ANZAM 2011 TABLE 2: NESTED MODEL COMPARISON Model χ² df p RMSEA SRMR CFI TLI Bayesian χ² df p (BIC) Fully mediated model E-67 Partially mediated model Proposed mediated model

20 ANZAM 2011 Page 20 of 22 FIGURE1: PROPOSED MODEL OF WELL-BEING, JOB EMBEDDEDNESS AND TURNOVER INTENTIONS Organization fit dimension Organization link dimension Career satisfaction Organisation sacrifice dimension Turnover intention Community link dimension Community fit dimension Life satisfaction Community Sacrifice dimension 19

21 Page 21 of 22 ANZAM 2011 FIGURE 2: OBSERVED MODEL OF WELL-BEING, JOB EMBEDDEDNESS AND TURNOVER INTENTIONS Organization fit dimension Community fit dimension.23 Life satisfaction (living conditions) Career satisfaction Life satisfaction (general) Organisation sacrifice dimension Community Sacrifice dimension.14 Turnover intention APPENDIX Job embeddedness scales: Fit: Community I really love the place where I live. The weather where I live is suitable for me. This community is a good match for me. I think of the community where I live as home. The area where I live offers the leisure activities that I like. Fit: Organization My job utilizes my skills and talents well. I feel like I am a good match for this organization. I feel personally valued by my organization. I fit with organization s culture. I like the authority and responsibility I have at this company. My values are compatible with the organization s values. Links: Community Are you currently married? Do you own the home you live in? 20

22 ANZAM 2011 Page 22 of 22 My family roots are in this community. How many family members live nearby? How many close friends live nearby? Links: Organisation How long have you been in your present position? How long have you worked for this company? How long have you worked for this industry? How many co-workers do you interact with regularly? How many work teams are you on? How many work committees are you on? Sacrifice: Community Leaving this community would be very hard. People respect me a lot in my community. My neighborhood is safe. Sacrifice: Organisation I have a lot of freedom in this job to decide how to pursue my goals. The perks in this job are outstanding. I feel that people at work respect me a great deal. I would sacrifice a lot if I left this job. My promotional opportunities are excellent here. I am well compensated for my level of performance. The benefits are good for this job. I believe the prospects for continuing employment with this company are excellent. Career satisfaction I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my goals for advancement I am satisfied with the progress I have made towards meeting my goals for the development of new skills Life satisfaction (living conditions) The accommodation (instead of house or flat) that you live in The local district that you live in your standard of living: the things you can buy and do Life satisfaction (general life satisfaction) your present state of health the education you have received what you are accomplishing in life your social life 21