Synergies between renewable energy and fresh water production
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1 Synergies between renewable energy and fresh water production
2 Ecofys Netherlands BV Kanaalweg 16-G P.O. Box 8408 NL RK Utrecht The Netherlands T: +31 (0) F: +31 (0) E: W: Synergies between renewable energy and fresh water production Scoping study -Confidential- By: Fieke Geurts, Paul Noothout, Anton Schaap Contact: Date: February 2011 Project number: PSTRNL Ecofys 2011 for the IEA Implementing Agreement for Renewable Energy Technology Deployment, IEA-RETD ECOFYS NETHERLANDS BV, A PRIVATE LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY INCORPORATED UNDER THE LAWS OF THE NETHERLANDS HAVING ITS OFFICIAL SEAT AT UTRECHT AND REGISTERED WITH THE TRADE REGISTER OF THE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE IN MIDDEN NEDERLAND UNDER FILE NUMBER
3 Foreword The IEA Implementing Agreement for Renewable Energy Technology Deployment (IEA-RETD) is interested to know whether the co-development of renewable energy and fresh water production can be beneficial in terms of system reliability and costs. The main notion is that water production can be made responsive to production of variable renewable energy, in combination with storage of water. Ecofys is assigned by IEA-RETD to investigate possible synergies in a short pilot study. We want to thank Kristina Bognar (TU Berlin), Poul Nielson (member of UNSGAB, former EU Commissioner), Edith Molenbroek (Ecofys), Wiep Folkerts (Ecofys), David de Jager (IEA RETD) and Bernhard Milow (IEA RETD, DLR) for their contributions. Fieke Geurts, Paul Noothout, Anton Schaap Utrecht, 21 February February
4 Executive Summary Ecofys investigated whether the co-development of renewable energy and fresh water production can be beneficial in terms of system reliability and costs. Conclusion 1: Fresh water production based on desalination technologies provide most options for synergies with renewable energy production. Fresh water production comes in many forms: withdrawal from lakes and rivers, use of groundwater, through wastewater treatment and reuse as well as by desalinating salt water. We have identified desalination of salt water to produce fresh water as the technology that is most likely to have synergies with renewable energy production. Desalination is a worldwide growth market: from 68 mln m 3 per day today to an expected 130 mln m 3 per day in Growth will take place in regions with good conditions for solar PV, CSP and sometimes also for offshore wind and wave and tidal energy. Desalination is energy-intensive and in need of thermal energy and/or electricity, depending on the salinity of the water and the technology applied. Extraction, transport and treatment of fresh water is far less energy intensive. The high energy need, in combination with the favourable conditions for some renewable energy options, gives a good basis for synergies. Linking desalination plants to renewable energy is on the agenda; the EU finances a large project called ProDes ( that focuses on possibilities to stimulate renewable energy by linking this to desalination of water. Conclusion 2: Linking desalination to renewable sources is currently not economically viable. Desalination is expensive and energy costs are an important part of these costs. Commercial desalination plants produce fresh water at costs around 1 2 per m 3. At present, the costs for desalinating water powered by renewable energy are above 3 per m 3. In the longer term it is clear that there may be a good synergy by coupling desalination to solar PV, solar thermal, wind or wave energy. The main benefit should then come from the low costs of RE. Prospective production costs are reported between per m 3. Conclusion 3: There is a large potential for small scale (decentralised) desalination plants. Many people in more remote areas are still lacking supply of fresh water. The water supply systems for these off grid regions would typically produce up to 100 m 3 per day, enough for a small community. This is also the typical size of many combinations 2
5 of renewable energy and desalination that are currently on the market. These small production facilities use solar energy to power (indirect) thermal energy desalination facilities or wind power to run desalination on mechanical vapour compression. The basis of the synergies between renewable energy sources and this smaller scale fresh water production is not that this is an economic solution as such. For these technologies renewable energy sources should be seen as the enabler to make fresh water production possible in regions where fresh water is scarce. The use of donor money from developed countries to developing countries could be a driving force for this synergy. Conclusion 4: Current commercially-sized desalination technologies are in need of a constant operation point. Reverse osmosis and thermal membrane technologies might give future synergies as deferrable load. Current desalination technology has been designed for use with a constant energy supply, with increased maintenance and operation costs or loss of efficiency in case of an intermittent electricity supply. The two technologies that could give positive synergies in the future are thermal membrane technologies and reverse osmosis. Membrane technologies using thermal energy for desalination would be suitable for discontinuous operation, but their market share is small at present. The systems could (in the future) be linked to waste heat from power generation, waste incineration plants and Concentrated Solar Power. Desalination systems based on reverse osmosis (RO) also favour a constant operation pattern from an economic perspective. An indicative cost calculation shows that the system might be used as deferrable load when the off-peak energy prices would be near to zero. In that case it would become economic to reserve an estimated 10-25% of (over) capacity as deferrable load by storing water. For a large commercial plant producing 300,000 m 3 per day, the deferrable load would then be MWh a day: 1-3% of a communities electricity demand. Recommendations for further research At the moment the question if water production (through desalination) can contribute as a storage technology and deferrable load to an electricity grid, is one that needs further technological research. The main research questions are: What does the bigger picture look like? There is need for market analysis as to the size, locations and segments of the market. What is the effect on the energy efficiency and operation & maintenance costs when desalination plants are operated discontinuously? What are the options for Concentrated Solar Power in combination with desalination? What technological developments could be expected? What are the costs predictions? 21 February
6 What technological developments are needed to make use of the storage capacity from desalination plants in combination with intermittent renewable energy? What volatility of energy prices would be needed to make use of the storage capacity from desalination plants in combination with intermittent renewable energy? Is possible deferrable load from desalination (now roughly calculated at 1-3%) large enough to be of interest for electricity systems with variable renewable energy production? How would storing water by using intermittent renewable energy benefit or disrupt the security of water supply? Recommendations for further research by IEA-RETD The question if fresh water production (through desalination) can contribute as a storage technology and deferrable load to an electricity grid, is mainly a technological one. As the RETD aims to encourage the international deployment of renewable energy through improved policies, the role of RETD is currently limited. 4
7 Table of contents 1 Introduction The need for fresh water The energy and water nexus The renewable energy and water nexus Synergies between desalination and renewable energy A focus on desalination Desalination technologies on renewable energy Synergy 1: Small and medium scale desalination Synergy 2: Commercial sized desalination plants What desalination technology? Case Study A: Concentrated Solar Power Case study B: Reverse Osmosis Conclusions and recommendations Conclusions Recommendations for further research Recommendations for further research by IEA-RETD...22 Reference sources Appendix A Data case study February
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9 1 Introduction Water and energy are inextricably linked. By 2030 electricity demand is expected to be 50% above current levels and fresh water demand will grow even faster, increasing 50% by These increases will affect the environment and subsequently the availability and use of water and energy [1]. Addressing one of these issues will automatically influence the other. A combined approach that is focusing on synergies between energy and fresh water production will therefore be preferred. Therefore it is needed to understand the mutual influence of water and energy, the so-called energy-water nexus. 1.1 The need for fresh water Lack of water security is a serious and growing global concern. One of the United Nation s Millennium target concerns water security: the ability to access sufficient quantities of clean water in order to maintain adequate standards of food and goods production, sanitation and health. The aim is to half the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water by Meeting the Millennium targets will require that an additional 1.5 billion people gain access to some form of improved water supply by Figure 1-1 shows that many of these people live in rural areas. Figure 1-1 United Nations on global water supply coverage [2] To maintain proper hydration a person needs about two litres per day, or a minimum of 10 litres including sanitation (with a global population of 6 trillion this is approximately 0.6 trillion cubic meters per year) [1]. Water shortage is one of the most important social and environmental issues in Africa and Asia 1. Figure 1-2 shows the availability of fresh water worldwide: the territory 1 According to figure 1 2 Asia, except for the Middle-East, has enough water resources, but as result of fast-growing populations in China and India, water shortages are expected. 21 February
10 size shows the proportion of all worldwide water resources found in the country 2. The figure shows that Northern and Southern Africa as well as the Middle-East have almost no fresh water resources. Figure 1-2 Global fresh water resources [3] Worldwide, most water is consumed in the agricultural sector, which is accounting for 70% of fresh water use (2.6 trillion cubic meters in 2001). After agriculture industry is the largest fresh water consumer, including producing energy for economic development and improving living standards. 1.2 The energy and water nexus Water and energy are inextricably linked in the so-called water and energy nexus: water is used to generate energy and at the same time, energy is used to provide water. Figure 1-3 shows the multiple ways the two interact, for example: Energy is needed for wastewater treatment; Power stations need (fresh) cooling water, that is partly evaporated after use 3 ; Energy can be generated by using hydropower. 2 Areas size gives absolute resources, not relative to number of inhabitants. Different colours schemes are used to differentiate per continent. 3 Energy production uses about 8% of all fresh water withdrawn worldwide, or 310 billion cubic meters in 2001, and 40% of fresh water withdrawn in developed countries [1]. 8
11 Figure 1-3 The interaction between water and energy [4]. 1.3 The renewable energy and water nexus Since the focus of our study is whether the co-development of renewable energy and fresh water production is possible, we need to consider the water and renewable energy nexus. A transition towards a renewable powered energy supply changes the interaction between energy and water in several ways. In Figure 1-4, the interaction with renewable energy sources and water is shown. A few examples of how renewable energy and water interact are: Energy that is needed for water treatment such as desalination or purification can be renewable based; Most renewable technologies, especially wind, do not require (fresh) cooling water; Renewable energy can be generated from water: hydro energy, wave and tidal energy and the use of heat and cold storage in aquifers can improve energy efficiency; Renewable energy does not need water for mining as is the case for extracting fossil fuels; There is a strong interaction between water and the production of biofuels; Biogas can be produced from wastewater treatment installations. 21 February
12 Reduce water of fossil fuel mining Wave, tidal, heat & cold storage Water use biofuel No water cooling wind Biogas production RE Figure 1-4 The influence of renewable energy on the energy and water nexus [5] Within this study we focus on fresh water treatment technologies (desalination, purification, pumping) in combination with renewable energy. 10
13 2 Synergies between desalination and renewable energy 2.1 A focus on desalination Fresh water production comes in many forms: withdrawal from lakes and rivers, use of groundwater, through wastewater treatment and reuse as well as by desalinating salt water. We have identified desalination of salt water to produce fresh water as the technology that is most likely to have synergies with renewable energy production, because: 1. Desalination is the most energy intensive of all fresh water production options; 2. Desalination capacity will increase significantly over the next decade; 3. The interaction between renewable and desalination is on the international agenda. First, desalination is energy intensive and in need of thermal energy and/or electricity, depending on the salinity of the water and the technology applied. The requirement for heat ranges from kwh th per m 3 and for electricity between 2.6 and 8.5 kwh per m 3 [6, 7]. Extraction, transportation and treatment of fresh water from lakes or rivers, or from wastewater, is far less energy intensive, see Figure 2-5 for an indication of the energy requirements. Figure 2-5 Energy requirements for fresh water treatment [5] Second, desalination is a worldwide growth market: from 68 mln m 3 per day today to an expected 130 mln m 3 per day in 2016 [6]. Growth will take place in regions with good conditions for solar energy and sometimes for offshore wind and wave and tidal energy. 21 February
14 Finally, linking desalination plants to renewable energy is on the political agenda; the EU finances a large project called ProDes ( [6, 7] that focuses on possibilities to stimulate renewable energy by linking this to desalination of water. 2.2 Desalination technologies on renewable energy In general there are three main types of desalination technologies: (1) Direct solar thermal (solar stills) is a passive technique, where the solar energy is used to evaporate sea water. The water vapour that condenses can be collected and used as drinking water. These technologies are mostly used at small scale, producing less than 100 cubic meters of water per day. They are designed for smaller villages or families in remote areas. The market share of this group of technologies is negligible. The potential of these technologies is large, keeping in mind that most people in need of fresh water are in rural areas in Asia and Africa. (2) Thermal technologies produce fresh water by heating and distillation of salt water using heat. Renewable technologies often use the solar energy indirectly, where heat is collected in solar thermal collectors. The heat is re-used multiple times to reduce the energy demand significantly [8]. A characteristic of thermal technologies is that capital investments are relatively low, but operational costs are very high. Also, when used discontinuously, most thermal technologies will perform inefficiently. Worldwide, this technology has a market share of about 44% of desalination capacity. The main technologies are: Multi-stage flash (MSF) and Multiple Effect Desalination (MED). Sea water is heated and fed into a vacuum chamber where it expands abruptly and evaporates. The vapour subsequently condenses on a heat exchanger that is also carrying salt water. The fraction that did not evaporate is fed into the next stage at a somewhat lower pressure. MED plants can be configured for high temperature or low temperature operation. Multiple Effect Humidification (MEH). Low-temperature heat provides energy for a closed desalination module in which salt water can evaporate and condense. Membrane Distillation (MD). Heated brine is directed along a water-repellent, porous polymer membrane. The vaporous water molecules penetrate the membrane and condense to the other side. The condensation heat is re-used. (3) Electrical. Electric applications of desalination are mostly used worldwide: reverse osmosis represents about 50% of the market and electro dialysis 6% [5]. Feature of electric applications is that the energy demand is relatively low, but the capital expenditures are very high. Large commercial-scale facilities can produce between 30,000 m 3 and 300,000 m 3 a day [9]. Reverse Osmosis (RO). Membrane filters hold back the salt ions from the pressurized solution, allowing only the water to pass. Electro dialysis (ED). An external direct current field attracts ions from the salt water towards membranes carrying the corresponding charges. 12
15 Two other technologies based on renewable energy play a role in desalinating water: Mechanical Vapour Compression (MVC). A mechanical compressor generates the necessary process heat. It squishes all the vapour from the last evaporation stage in order to feed it to the first evaporation stage as compressed heating steam. Thermal vapour compression (TVC). A steam jet compressor compresses part of the vapour to a higher pressure to heat evaporation stages. Table 2-1 Characteristics of main desalination technologies in combination with renewable energy Technology Energy Energy Water Typical Technical Geographical source demand generation capacity development requirements costs 4 stage Solar still Solar still 640 kwh/m /m 3 < 0.1 m 3 / Applications - Salt water (thermal) [6] day [6] - Sunshine / heat MEH Solar 100 kwh/m /m Applications / - Salt water r (thermal / thermal thermal m 3 / day advanced R&D - Sunshine / heat electric) collector 1.5 kwh /m 3 [10] electrical [10] MED Solar > 1,000 Advanced R&D - Salt water (thermal / thermal kwh/m 3 m 3 [6] [6] - Sunshine / heat electric) collectors thermal - Industrial / and/or professional Concentrated kwh/m 3 environment Solar Power electrical [6] - Environment with electricity demand (urban) MD Solar /m Advanced R&D - Salt water thermal kwh/m 3 m 3 /day - Sunshine / heat thermal - Industrial / professional environment with knowledge of membranes - Environment with electricity demand (urban) RO For instance /m 3 1 Basic research - Salt water (electrical) Wind,CSP, kwh/m 3 for for brackish 10,000 for wave-ro, - Industrial / Wave or PV brackish water water m 3 /day some professional 4 Costs are given relative to the (renewable) energy source. Numbers are indicative and depend on local conditions for the renewable technology and are given for the current sitauation (2010). 21 February
16 Technology Energy Energy Water Typical Technical Geographical source demand generation capacity development requirements costs 4 stage [7, 10] 5-12 /m 3 applications environment 4-5 kwh/m 3 for salt for wind-ro. - Environment for salt water water [12] with electricity [10] demand (urban) ED PV 3-4 kwh /m /m 3 < 100 m 3 advanced R&D - Salt water (electric) for brackish for brackish [9] [9] - Industrial / water 5 water [9] professional environment - Environment with electricity demand (urban) MVC Wind /m 3 10 advanced R&D - Salt water kwh/m 3 1,000 m 3 - Industrial / electrical, only / day professional for water brackish environment - Environment with electricity demand (urban) Table 2-1 provides an overview of the different desalination technologies in relation to renewable energy technologies. It shows per desalination technology the renewable source of energy that is most applicable, the energy demand, the cost for generating fresh water (for this specific renewable energy option), the typical capacity, technological development stage and the geographical requirements. The technology overview shows that: Desalination technologies differ considerably in size. The smallest scale are simple direct solar technology devices that produce 1.5 up to 60 liters of fresh water a day, larger scale technologies on renewables produce thousand cubic meters a day. Large commercial-scale facilities (not necessarily operating on renewables) produce between 30,000 m 3 and 300,000 m 3 a day. In Figure 2-6 the typical size of desalination technologies is presented for different technologies and renewable energy sources and per development stage. For smaller scale technologies applications on renewable energy are (commercially) available. The technology for larger scale application of renewables for desalination is less far advanced. No technologies are available to run large commercial desalination plants (over 100,000 m 3 per day) exclusively on renewable energy. Desalination is expensive and energy costs are an important part of these costs. Commercial desalination plants produce fresh water at costs around 1 2 per 5 1kWh needed to extract 1kg of salt [9] 14
17 m 3, using fossil energy. At present, the costs for desalinating water powered by renewable energy are roughly above 3 per m 3, although cost differ significantly per technology and per location. Figure 2-6 Renewable energy based desalination technologies, presented per typical capacity and development stage [7]. In the longer term good synergy is expected by coupling desalination to solar photovoltaics (PV), solar thermal, wind or wave energy. The main benefit should then come from the low costs of renewable energy. Prospective production costs are reported between per m 3. Based on this technology assessment, we see two possible synergies: small and medium scale desalination and storage options for large commercial systems. 2.3 Synergy 1: Small and medium scale desalination Many people in more remote areas are still lacking supply of fresh water. The water supply systems for these off-grid regions would typically produce up to 100 m 3 per day, enough for a small community. This is also the typical size of many combinations of renewable energy and desalination (see Figure 2-6). These small production facilities use solar energy to power (indirect) thermal energy desalination facilities or wind power to run desalination on mechanical vapour compression. The basis of the synergies between renewable energy sources and this smaller scale fresh water production is not that this is an economic solution as such. For these technologies renewable energy sources should be seen as the enabler to make fresh 21 February
18 water production possible in regions where fresh water is scares. The use of donor money from developed countries to developing countries could be a driving force for this synergy. 2.4 Synergy 2: Commercial sized desalination plants The projected growth in desalination technologies will mainly come from large-scale desalination plants, producing more than 30,000 and up to 300,000 m³ per day. Growth will take place in the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern areas, Asia and Australia. Current desalination technology has been designed for use with a constant energy supply, with increased maintenance and operation costs or loss of efficiency in case of an intermittent electricity supply. The synergy between renewable and desalination is limited at present: in many cases it is a political decision to power the desalination plant by renewable sources to off-set the environmental impact of the larger energy needs for desalination. There are no direct financial or systemic synergies. An illustration of such a combination of desalination and renewable energy, is the Perth Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant in Western Australia, with a capacity of 140,000 m³ per day, supplying about 1.5 million people and with an electricity requirement of 24 MW ( kwh/m 3 ) [13]. Forty-eight wind turbines with a total capacity of 80 MW produce the electricity needed. The plant is designed to operate continuously, drawing electricity from the grid when wind production is not sufficient [13]. A potential (financial) synergy between renewable energy and large-scale fresh water technologies is the option to use water production from desalination as storage technology and deferrable load to the electricity grid. This would mean that the desalination plant produces and stores water when enough electricity is available on the grid and slows down or stops operation when electricity supply is lower than demand. Research into this topic is, compared to initiatives to integrate renewable energy sources with smaller-scale desalination plants, still in its infancy. Within this project we have made a first attempt to research this topic a little further and tried to answer the question if it is financially attractive to use water storage in commercial desalination plants as a deferrable load to the electricity grid What desalination technology? The desalination technologies that would be suitable to be used as a deferrable load, would preferable need to have a large water production: over 10,000 m 3 per day. The two technologies that could give positive synergies in the future are thermal membrane technologies and reverse osmosis. 16
19 Thermal technologies like MED or MSF 6 need a constant operation point in order to operate efficiently. Heat is reused up to 15 times and stopping and starting results in inefficiencies and higher operation and maintenance costs. They do not go well together with the intermittent character of some renewable energy production technologies like solar energy and wind. Membrane technologies using indirect solar thermal energy for desalination would be more suitable for discontinuous operation, but their market share is small at present. The average installed capacity is expected to grow significantly: from 3 million m 3 per day today to 12 million m 3 per day in 2015 [6]. For these thermal desalination options there is the possibility to link them with waste heat from, waste incineration plants and Concentrated Solar Power (see section Error! Reference source not found.). Desalination systems based on reverse osmosis (RO) also favour a stable operation, mainly from a cost perspective [6]. Their size (typically above 30,000 m 3 per day), the fact that there are limited technological barriers to run them discontinuously, and their electricity consumption would make them the most ideal candidate for using them as deferrable load to the electricity grid (see section 2.4.3) Case Study A: Concentrated Solar Power One possibility for synergy between desalination and renewable energy is combining fresh water production with a thermal technology. Thermal technologies and especially membrane technologies have the advantage that in most forms of electricity production rest heat is available. This can be used for desalination. Renewable energy development in Mediterranean and Middle Eastern countries is mainly focused on solar power, such as concentrated solar power (CSP). Although CSP is not commercially available yet, there are high expectations on this technology, because of its great resource potential and expected cost-reductions due to economies of scale. With CSP, solar power is used to produce steam that powers a turbine for electricity production. This offers potential for a combination with thermal desalination technologies. When the electricity demand is low, the heat can be used to produce fresh water. The combination between CSP and thermal desalination technologies will have a negative effect on the efficiency of electricity production, since (waste) heat is needed for the desalination process. The size and capacity of a CSP plant need therefore to be adapted when desalination is included in the design. Because both water production and electricity production are primary needs, both supplies should be ensured. A hybrid version with a separate gas turbine might offer a possible solution. 6 Two desalination technologies using indirect solar heat: Multi-Stage Flash (MSF, ~40% desalination market) and Multiple Effect Desalination (MED, ~4% market). 21 February
20 Another topic that needs to be addressed when considering the synergy between CSP and desalination is that the CSP technology itself is in need of fresh water. A CSP plants consumes approximately 2,800-3,500 liters per MWh [4]. When considering Reverse Osmosis (5-7 kwh/ m 3 ) about 1%-3% of the electricity produced would again be needed to run the CSP plant. This excludes possible energy needs to transport (salt) water to the CSP plant Case study B: Reverse Osmosis We did a first feasibility assessment on running a desalination plant on low(er) full load hours. The idea is to use the overcapacity to store water when electricity is available at lower prices (e.g. when there is surplus of electricity on the grid). A desalination plant could then function as a deferrable load to the electricity grid. We made an estimation of what energy prices are needed to make the discontinuous operation of desalination plants economically attractive. We modelled the off-peak electricity prices for Reverse Osmosis desalination plants. As a starting point we take production and investment figures of a large desalination plant. We keep the costs to produce 1 m 3 of fresh water constant at 1.5 /m 3 [14] 7, keep the peak (high) electricity price at 0.12 /kwh and assume that the plant will always run during the cheaper off-peak period and during part of the peak. Costs for storage of water have not been taken into account. For different full load hours we then calculate the minimum off-peak energy price needed to make the plant profitable. We distinguish two scenarios: one where the operation and maintenance costs are kept constant and a scenario where the operation and maintenance costs decrease proportional to production. The two scenarios give a minimum and maximum estimation for the operational costs. The background data is available in Appendix A. 7 Based on a calculation, using investment costs for RO installation [14], O&M costs [14] and costs for electricity [8] 18
21 Off peak electricity price, high O&M costs Off peak electricity price, low O&M costs Euro / MWh Source: Ecofys 0 70% % 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% Capacity used of RO installation Figure 2-7 The minimal off-peak electricity prices needed to produce water for 1.5 /m 3 at different full load hours, using today s technology Figure 2-7 presents the results of the assessments. It shows the minimum off-peak electricity prices needed to produce water for 1.5 /m 3 at different full load hours, using today s technology. The graph shows that in the favourable case that the operational and maintenance costs are low, it becomes profitable to install a plant that will run for 75% of the time under the condition that the electricity price during the eight hours of the off-peak period is around 0 /MWh. In other words: it is profitable to have 25% flexible (over) capacity if the electricity during the night is for free. The results are very sensitive to the operation and maintenance costs. The flexible capacity for zero off-peak electricity prices would be limited to around 10% when O&M costs are higher. This indicative cost calculation shows that the reverse osmosis systems might be used as deferrable load when the off-peak energy prices would be near to zero. In that case it would become economic to reserve an estimated 10-25% of (over) capacity as deferrable load by storing water. For a large commercial plant producing 300,000 m 3 per day, the deferrable load would then be MWh a day. To interpret if the potential effect on the grid is large we compare this flexible capacity with the total electricity need of a city. A city in need of 300,000 m 3 per day would require approximately 17 GWh electricity for household use 8. It means that the desalination process could make 1-2% of the electricity need flexible. 8 An average (western Europe) one person household consumes approximately 45 m3 water and 2500 kwh on yearly bases (source: 21 February
22 3 Conclusions and recommendations 3.1 Conclusions Conclusion 1: Desalination technologies provide most options for synergies Desalination is a worldwide growth market: from 68 mln m 3 per day today to an expected 130 mln m 3 per day in Growth will take place in regions with good conditions for solar PV, CSP and sometimes also for offshore wind and wave and tidal energy. Desalination is energy-intensive and in need of thermal energy and/or electricity, depending on the salinity of the water and the technology applied. The requirement for heat ranges from kwh th per m 3 and for electricity between 1 5 kwh per m 3. Extraction, transport and treatment of fresh water is far less energy intensive. Linking desalination plants to renewable energy is on the agenda; the EU finances a large project called ProDes ( that focuses on possibilities to stimulate renewable energy by linking this to desalination of water. Conclusion 2: Linking desalination to renewable sources is currently not economically viable. Desalination is expensive and energy costs are an important part of these costs. Commercial desalination plants produce fresh water at costs around 1 2 per m 3. At present, the costs for desalinating water powered by renewable energy are above 3 per m 3. In the longer term it is clear that there may be a good synergy by coupling desalination to solar PV, solar thermal, wind or wave energy. The main benefit should then come from the low costs of RE. Prospective production costs are reported between per m 3. Conclusion 3: There is a large potential for small scale (decentralised) desalination plants. Many people in more remote areas are still lacking supply of fresh water. The water supply systems for these off grid regions would typically produce up to 100 m 3 per day, enough for a small community. This is also the typical size of many combinations of renewable energy and desalination that are currently on the market. These small production facilities use solar energy to power (indirect) thermal energy desalination facilities or wind power to run desalination on mechanical vapour compression. The basis of the synergies between renewable energy sources and this smaller scale fresh water production is not that this is an economic solution as such. For these technologies renewable energy sources should be seen as the enabler to make fresh 20
23 water production possible in regions where fresh water is scarce. The use of donor money from developed countries to developing countries could be a driving force for this synergy. Conclusion 4: Current commercially-sized desalination technologies are in need of a constant operation point. Reverse osmosis and thermal membrane technologies might give future synergies as deferrable load. Current desalination technology has been designed for use with a constant energy supply, with increased maintenance and operation costs or loss of efficiency in case of an intermittent electricity supply. The two technologies that could give positive synergies in the future are thermal membrane technologies and reverse osmosis. Membrane technologies using thermal energy for desalination would be suitable for discontinuous operation, but their market share is small at present. The systems could (in the future) be linked to waste heat from power generation, waste incineration plants and Concentrated Solar Power. Desalination systems based on reverse osmosis (RO) also favour a constant operation pattern from an economic perspective. An indicative cost calculation shows that the system might be used as deferrable load when the off-peak energy prices would be near to zero. In that case it would become economic to reserve an estimated 10-25% of (over) capacity as deferrable load by storing water. For a large commercial plant producing 300,000 m 3 per day, the deferrable load would then be MWh a day: 1-3% of a communities electricity demand. 3.2 Recommendations for further research At the moment the question if water production (through desalination) can contribute as a storage technology and deferrable load to an electricity grid, is one that needs further technological research. The main research questions are: What does the bigger picture look like? There is need for market analysis as to the size, locations and segments of the market. What is the effect on the energy efficiency and operation & maintenance costs when desalination plants are operated discontinuously? What are the options for Concentrated Solar Power in combination with desalination? What technological developments could be expected? What are the costs predictions? What technological developments are needed to make use of the storage capacity from desalination plants in combination with intermittent renewable energy? What volatility of energy prices would be needed to make use of the storage capacity from desalination plants in combination with intermittent renewable energy? 21 February
24 Is possible deferrable load from desalination (now roughly calculated at 1-3%) large enough to be of interest for electricity systems with variable renewable energy production? How would storing water by using intermittent renewable energy benefit or disrupt the security of water supply? 3.3 Recommendations for further research by IEA-RETD The question if fresh water production (through desalination) can contribute as a storage technology and deferrable load to an electricity grid, is mainly a technological one. As the RETD aims to encourage the international deployment of renewable energy through improved policies, the role of RETD is currently limited. 22
25 Reference sources The energy and water nexus is on the international agenda. The main activities that consider the interaction and synergies are summarised below. In 2009 the business community presented two documents: Water, Energy and Climate Change A contribution from the business community from the World Business Counsel for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and Energy Vision Update 2009 Thirsty Energy: Water and Energy in the 21st Century; A more indepth analysis of the water-energy nexus is made in this report from the World Economic Forum. These reports stress that water, energy and climate change are inextricably linked and urge for action. The US is one of the developed countries that is faced with issues on the security of water supply. A 2006 report of the US congress by the Department of Energy analyses the interdependency of energy and water, focusing on threads to national energy production resulting from limited water suppl. The conclusion is that efficiency of both electricity and water use needs to be improved. In Europe and the Middle East, research programmes focus on renewable energy in combination with desalination technolgies. For the past two years the EU funded research project two years ProDes (Promotion of Renewable Energy for Water production through Desalination) focused on possibilities to stimulate renewable energy by linking this to desalination of water. Activities where mainly focusing on market development in Southern Europe. The efforts of the project resulted in several reports, among which a Roadmap. Several publications from the ProDes project can be found via In March 2009 the Working Party on Renewable Energy Technologies of the International Energy Agency held a workshop on Renewable Energy and Water. The objective of the workshop was to describe the potential role of renewable energy in delivering clean water. References [1] World Economic Forum, 2009, Energy Vision Update 2009 Thirsty Energy: Water and Energy in the 21st Century; [2] UN Water, 2005, Water for Life Decade; [3] 2010, Global water intelligence The desalination market returns, [4] WBCSD Water, 2009, Water, Energy and Climate Change A contribution from the business community; [5] ProDes, 2010, Roadmap for the development of desalination powered by renewable energy, March 2010; [6] ProDes, 2010, Commercial Desalination Products powered by Renewable Energy, January 2010; 21 February
26 [7] US Department of Energy, 2006, Energy Demands on Water Resources, December 2006; [8] Berner, J., 2010, Drinking from the sea, Sun & Wind Energy, 9, September 2010, page:70 73; [9] DLR, 2007, Concentrating solar power for seawater desalination, November 2007; [10] [11] URS Australia, 2002, Introduction to Desalination Technologies in Australia, September 2002; Web pages [12] 2009, Website of IEA workshop on Renewable Energy & Water [13] 2010, Worldmapper Water resources, [14] 2010, Desalination Markets 2010 The Desalination Market is to Top $30bn by 2016, [15] 2010, Brabant water drinkwatertarieven 2010, atertarieven2010.aspx Experts [16] Molenbroek, E., Senior consultant at Ecofys, Expertise areas: solar energy and electrical driven desalination techniques, interviewed November 2010; [17] Schaap, A., Senior consultant at Ecofys, Expertise areas: desalination technologies and energy technologies,, interviewed November 2010; [18] Folkerts, F., Managing consultant at Ecofys, Expertise areas: solar energy and project management and in the Middle East, interviewed November 2010; [19] Nielson, P. Member of UNSGAB (UN Secretary General's Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation), former EU-Commissioner for Development Cooperation and former Danish Minister for Energy and Minister for Development Cooperation. Communication by December [20] Bognar, K. Phd student at Technical University of Berlin. Researching if desalination can contribute as storage technology and deferrable load to an electricity grid, interviewed January
27 Appendix A Data case study Central parameters Production parameters Costs Distribution off-peak and peak elektricity source: \\nl00-brood\nav$\p\str\jobs\pstrnl101294_synergies Renewable Energy and Drinking Water\Info\Zejli et al - APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR AND WIND ENERGY SOURCES TO SEA-WATER.pdf Hourly water production 50 m3/h Investment costs O&M costs Energy costs Off-peak energy costs peak energy costs Daily water production 1,200 m3/d 1,920,000 EUR (20 y) 1,864,470 EUR (20 y) 0.1 EUR / kwh 33% off-peak % 67% peak % Annual water production 438,000 m3/y 225,522 EUR / y 219,000 EUR / y EUR / y 0.06 EUR / kwh 0.12 EUR / kwh Electricity consumption 5 kwh/m EUR / m EUR / m3 0.5 EUR / m EUR / y EUR / y Installed power 250 kw 0.3 EUR / m3 0.6 EUR / m3 Annual electricty production 2,190 MWh/y Lifetime 20 y Annuity factor Water production and energy consumption at different FLH 15% 25% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% Production m3 / y 65, , , , , , , , , , , , ,000 Energy during peak kwh / y , , , , , ,500 1,022,000 1,131,500 1,241,000 1,350,500 1,460,000 Energy during off-peak kwh / y 328, , , , , , , , , , , , ,000 Costs EUR / m Scenario 2: O&M costs same as at full load Investment EUR / y 225, , , , , , , , , , , , ,522 O&M EUR / y 32,850 54, , , , , , , , , , , ,000 Energy - peak EUR / y ,800 56,940 70,080 83,220 96, , , , , , ,200 Energy - off peak EUR / y -158, ,392-47,061-37,975-28,889-19,803-10,717-1,631 7,456 16,542 25,628 34,714 43,800 Total EUR / y 99, , , , , , , , , , , , ,522 Investment EUR / m O&M EUR / m Energy - peak EUR / m Energy - off peak EUR / m Off peak electricity price high EUR / kwh Scenario 1: O&M costs proportional to operational hours Investment EUR / y 225, , , , , , , , , , , , ,522 O&M EUR / y 219, , , , , , , , , , , , ,000 Energy - peak EUR / y ,800 56,940 70,080 83,220 96, , , , , , ,200 Energy - off peak EUR / y -344, , , , ,489-96,453-76,417-56,381-36,344-16,308 3,728 23,764 43,800 Total EUR / y 99, , , , , , , , , , , , ,522 Investment EUR / m O&M EUR / m Energy - peak EUR / m Energy - off peak EUR / m Off peak electricity price low EUR / kwh February A SUSTAI N ABLE ENERGY SUPPLY FOR EVERYONE
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