Nuclear and Radiochemistry
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1 Nuclear and Radiochemistry Jdzsef Kdnya and Nodmi M. Nagy Isotope Laboratory, Department of Colloid and Environmental Chemistry University of Debrecen Debrecen, Hungaty AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD ELSEVIER PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
2 Contents Preface 1 Introduction 1 Further Reading 11 2 Basic Concepts Atomic Nuclei Components of Nuclei Forces in the Nucleus Other Properties of Nuclei Elementary Particles Models of Nuclei The Liquid-Drop Model The Shell Model Unified and Collective Models 25 Further Reading 25 3 Isotopes Isotopic Effects Physical Isotope Effects Spectroscopic Isotope Effects Phase Equilibrium Isotope Effects Isotope Effects in the Kinetics of Chemical Reactions The Isotope Effect in a Chemical Equilibrium B iological Isotope Effects Separation of Isotopes Isotope Composition in Nature Study of Geological Formations and Processes by Stable Isotope Ratios Study of the Temperature and Age of Geological Formations Study of the Hydrological Process by Measuring the Ratio of Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes Changes in the Isotope Ratio of Nitrogen Isotope Ratios of Carbon Stable Isotope Ratios in Ecological Studies 47 Further Reading 47
3 vi Contents 4 Radioactive Decay Kinetics of Radioactive Decay Statistics of Simple Radioactive Decay Activity and Intensity Decay of Independent (Mixed) Nuclei Branching Decay Kinetics of Successive Decay Radioactive Equilibria Radioactive Decay Series Radioactive Dating Radioactive Dating by Lead Isotope Ratios Radioactive Dating by Helium Concentration Radioactive Dating by Fission of Uranium Radioactive Dating by Argon Concentration Radioactive Dating by 87Rb- 87Sr, Parent Daughter Pairs Radiocarbon Dating Mechanism of Radioactive Decay Alpha Decay Beta Decays Electron Capture Proton and Neutron Decay Spontaneous Fission Isomeric Transition (IT) Exotic Decay 82 Further Reading 82 5 Interaction of Radiation with Matter Basic Concepts Interaction of Alpha Particles with Matter Energy Loss of Alpha Particles Backscattering of Alpha Particles Interaction of Beta Radiation with Matter Interaction of Beta Particles with Orbital Electrons and the Nuclear Field Cherenkov Radiation Annihilation of Positrons Absorption of Beta Radiation Self-Absorption of Beta Radiation Backscattering of Beta Radiation Interaction of Gamma Radiation with Matter Rayleigh Scattering Thomson Scattering Compton Scattering The Photoelectric Effect Pair Formation 116
4 Contents vii Total Absorption of Gamma Radiation Resonance Absorption of Nuclei and the Mössbauer Effect Interaction of Neutrons with Matter Discovery of Neutrons Production of Neutrons Interaction of Neutrons with Matter 125 Further Reading Nuclear Reactions Kinetics of Nuclear Reactions Classification of Nuclear Reactions Nuclear Reactions with Neutrons Nuclear Reactions with Gamma Photons Nuclear Reactions with Charged Particles Thermonuclear Reactions Nucleogenesis: The Production of Elements in the Universe Production of Transuranium Elements General Scheme of Radionuclide Production by Nuclear Reactions and Radioactive Decay Chemical Effects of Nuclear Reactions 150 Further Reading Nuclear Energy Production Nuclear Power Plants The Main Parts of Nuclear Reactors Natural Nuclear Reactors The First Artificial Nuclear Reactor Types of Nuclear Reactors Environmental Impacts of Nuclear Reactors Accidents in Nuclear Power Plants Storage and Treatment of Spent Fuel and Other Radioactive Waste Storage of Low- and Intermediate-Level Nuclear Waste Treatment and Storage of High-Level Nuclear Waste New Trends in Nuclear Energy Production Improvement of the Fission in Nuclear Power Plants Experiments with Fusion Energy Production Nuclear Weapons 175 Further Reading Radioactive Tracer Methods History of Radioactive Tracer Methods Basic Concepts Selection of Tracers Position of the Labeling Atom in a Molecule 187
5 viii Contents 8.5 General Methods for the Preparation of Radioactive Tracers Tracers Received from Radioactive Decay Series Artificial Radioactive Tracers 8.6 Radioactive Isotopes in Tracer Methods Tritium Carbon Isotopes Used in Medical PET Sodium Isotopes Magnesium Aluminum Phosphorus-32 (P-32) Sulfur-35 (S-35) Chlorine Potassium Isotopes Calcium Chromium-51 (Cr-51) Manganese Iron Isotopes Cobalt Nickel Copper Isotopes Zinc Gallium and Germanium Isotopes Arsenic-76 (As-76) Radioactive Isotopes of Selenium, Bromine, and Rare Earth Elements Bromine Isotopes Krypton Rubidium Strontium Isotopes Yttrium Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) Rutenium, Rhodium, and Palladium Isotopes Silver Isotopes Cadmium-115m Indium Isotopes Iodine Isotopes Xenon Isotopes Cesium Isotopes Renium Iridium Gold Mercury Isotopes of Elements Heavier than Mercury Transuranium Elements 208
6 Contents ix 8.7 The Main Steps of the Production of Unsealed Radioactive Preparations (Lajos Baranyai) Unsealed Radioactive Preparations Using Reactor Irradiation Unsealed Radioisotope Preparations Based an Cyclotron Irradiation Quality Control of Unsealed Radioactive Preparations Production of Encapsulated Radioactive Preparations (Sealed Sources) (Lajos Baranyai) The Main Steps of the Production of Sealed Radioactive Sources Quality Control of Sealed Radioactive Sources Facilities, Equipment, and Tools Serving for Production of Radioactive Substances (Lajos Baranyai) 226 Further Reading Physicochemical Application of Radiotracer Methods The Thermodynamic Concept of Classification (Distribution of Radioactive and Stable Isotopes) Classification of Tracer Methods Physicochemical Applications of Tracer Methods Solubility Measurements Measurements of the Rate of Migration, Diffusion, and Self-Diffusion Isotope Exchange Reactions Study of Interfacial Reactions Coprecipitation Tracer Techniques in Electrochemistry 269 Further Reading Radio- and Nuclear Analysis Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers The Measurement of Concentration Using Natural Radioactive Isotopes Determination Yield of Separation Reactions by Radioactive Tracers Solubility Measurements Radiochromatography Radiometric Titration Isotope Dilution Methods Radioanalytical Methods Using the Interaction of Radiation with Matter Basic Concepts Analytical Methods Using Irradiations with Neutrons Irradiation with X-Ray and Gamma Photons 302
7 x Contents Irradiation with Electron and Beta Radiation Irradiation with Charged Particles Further Reading Industrial Application of Radioisotopes 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Tracer Investigations with Open Radioisotopes The Principle, Types, and Sensitivity of the Radiotracer Technique Unsealed Radionuclides Used for Labeling in Industrial Tracer Studies Exploration of Leaks Determination of Flow Rates Measuring Volume and/or Mass of Large Quantities of Substances in Closed Equipment Investigation of Homogeneity of Mixtures Characterization of Material Flow and Determination of Chemical Engineering Parameters Wear Studies Groundwater Flow Studies Absorption and Scattering Measurements with Sealed Radioactive Sources Principle of the Measurements Sealed Radioactive Sources Used for Measurement Level Indication of Materials in Tanks Material Thickness Determination Material Density Determination Moisture Content Determination Industrial Radiography Geological Borehole Logging with Nuclear Methods 349 Further Reading An Introduction to Nuclear Medicine Fields of Nuclear Medicine In Vitro Diagnostics In Vivo Diagnostics Therapy with Unsealed Radioactive Preparations The Role and Aspects of Applying Radiotracers in Medicine Comparison of Methods for In Vitro Measurement of Concentrations Measurement of Tracers and Contrast Materials Inside the Organism by External Detectors Production of Artificial Radionuclides How Do You Choose Radiotracers for Medical Applications? 354
8 Contents xi Types of Electromagnetic Radiation Most Common Radionuclides in Nuclear Medicine In Vitro Diagnostics with Radioisotopes Basic Reaction of Immunoassays Immunometric ("Sandwich") Assay Radionuclide Imaging Parts of a Gamma Camera Digital Gamma Cameras Methods for Emission Imaging Computer-Aided Processing of Nuclear Medical Images Some Examples of Gamma Camera Imaging Procedures Thyroid Scintigraphy Tumor Imaging Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy SPECT Imaging of Epilepsy Positron Emission Tomography The PET Camera ' 8F-FDG PET Studies with PET/CT Research Studies Using PET Imaging Myocardial Metabolism 374 Further Reading Environmental Radioactivity Natural Radioactive Isotopes Radioactive Isotopes of Anthropogenic Origin Occurrence of Radioactive Isotopes in the Environment Radioactivity in the Atmosphere Radioactivity in the Hydrosphere Radioactivity in the Lithosphere Radioactive Isotopes in Living Organisms Biological Effects of Radiation Dose Units Mechanism of Biological Effects The Natural Background of Radiation Effects of Radiation an Living Organisms 390 Further Reading Detection and Measurement of Radioactivity Gas-Filled Tubes Scintillation Detectors Scintillator Materials Photomultip!iers Semiconductor Detectors Electric Circuits Connected to Detectors 407
9 xii Contents 14.5 Track and Other Detectors Cloud Chambers and Bubble Chambers Autoradiography Solid-State Detectors Chemical Dosimeters Detection of Neutrons by Nuclear Reactions Absolute Measurement of Decomposition Statistics of Radioactive Decay Statistical Error of Radioactivity Measurement Correction of Background Radioactivity 417 Further Reading 418
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