Computer Training Programme for Primary School Teachers in Teacher Training Institutions of the Southern Region of Botswana

Transcription

1 Research in Post-Compulsory Education, Volume 9, Number 3, 2004 Computer Training Programme for Primary School Teachers in Teacher Training Institutions of the Southern Region of Botswana KABITA BOSE University of Botswana ABSTRACT Botswana does not intend to be left behind in the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in the support of research, education, development and communication with the rest of the world. It intends to introduce computers with connections to the Internet and computer-based communication to all schools. Excellence in Education for the New Millenium (Ministry of Education, 1999), indicates that computer skills will be integrated and infused into the core and optional subjects at the upper primary level. This needs certain preparations such as teacher empowerment with ICT skills. Thus, to find out what preparations are being made, a study was conducted to investigate the status of computer training at Tertiary Teacher Training Institutions (TTTIs), preparing primary school teachers, in the southern region of Botswana. The sample comprised of two diploma-offering colleges of education, and one degreeoffering institution of Botswana. The study revealed that computer training is not very effective in colleges of education, whereas in the degree-offering institution the situation is much better. Recommendations are made to make the computer training more effective. Introduction Botswana lies in the Southern African region. It is a land locked country and its population is 1.7 million, which is quite small for its size of 581,730 km 2. It has a mature political culture with a multi-party democracy. It has a vibrant and liberalised economy, which has made a significant contribution to its social development. Its economy is closely tied to that of South Africa and is predominantly controlled by the diamond mining industry. Agriculture, which employs more than 25% of the population, contributes only 3% to the nation s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A total of 8.6% of its GDP is spent on 401

2 Kabita Bose education, 2.5% on health and 3.4% on military expenditure. Unemployment is officially reported at more than 15% with more than 33% of the population living below the poverty line. In June 2001, under the guidance of the multi-sect oral reference group, the preparation of National Development Plan / /09 (National Development Plan 9 [NDP9], 2003) was started. It set out with a macroeconomic outline and policy framework to address the theme Towards Realisation of Vision 2016: sustainable and diversified development through competitiveness in global markets. It aimed at achieving sustainable development through economic diversification by building the pillars of Vision 2016 (Vision 2016, 1997), namely: an educated and informed nation; a prosperous, productive and innovative nation; a compassionate, just and caring nation; a safe and secure nation; an open and democratic and accountable nation; a moral and tolerant nation; a united and proud nation. Recognising the limitations of the size and extent of the local market in Botswana, global competitiveness and trade remain important for achieving sustainable and diversified development of the economy. To meet these objectives, efforts need to be made at enhancing competitiveness with reference to the global economy, and increasing the availability of trained manpower, intensifying research and development and promoting financial markets. Following the establishment of the National Commission for Science and Technology in 2002, the Government is in the process of developing a National Research, Science and Technology plan to guide the implementation of the Science and Technology Policy to make Botswana a knowledge-based society and a major participant in the competitive world. To help the nation s economy, alleviate poverty, and improve the quality of life and the opportunities for all people, an Information and Communications Technology Policy and a National Information and Communication Plan is being developed (Sebetela, 2003). According to the educational vision of Botswana, as expressed in the Ministry of Education s strategic plan , the Government intends to offer equitable lifelong education and training that is relevant and responsive to the rapid technological development, and the changing socioeconomic environment, to produce knowledgeable, skilled, enterprising and independent individuals. In order to do so, the Government plans to provide resources for the expansion of educational facilities. It proposes that all schools have access to a computer and to computer-based communication, such as the Internet, by 2016 (Vision 2016, 1997). NDP9 very clearly states that: During NDP9, major projects will be to develop an Education Data Network (EDN) so that computer laboratories in schools could be connected to the Internet. ICT education will be intensified during 402

3 COMPUTER TRAINING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS this Plan period to ensure that all students acquire the key skill of computer literacy during their basic education period. Acquisition of hardware and training of personnel will be intensified so that officers can make full use of the system that has been developed. (NDP9, 2003, p. 280) In order to achieve the goals stated above, a strong foundation in computer skills is essential at all levels. Consequently, empowerment of school teachers with computer skills is one of the most important preparations to be made whilst introducing computers and computer-based communications in schools. Teachers have a key role in making information and communication technology (ICT) accessible to people of varying backgrounds and ages (Sinko & Lehtinen, 1999). This is absolutely necessary, as competent and highly motivated teaching personnel are a basic requirement in bringing about any change in schools. Teachers require training to link activities done on the computer to the general education of children and act as facilitators in the process of learning. They need to be empowered with computing skills and to be made computer literate. In a five-day Historic Pan-African workshop on ICT in African Schools in Botswana in April-May 2003, participants identified that an initiative should be taken in building capacity on human resources. It further elaborated that efforts should be made to build pre- and in-service teacher training systems to use ICTs, to adopt effective models for teacher training, to develop distance learning teacher training courses, and to procure training on the establishment and management of school net organisations, school net champions and technical training (Historic Pan-African Workshop, 2003). Therefore, the policy should identify ways of improving teacher capacity in the use of ICT, as well as their specific integration into teaching systems and pedagogical models. The policy should also outline the type of additional staff required to support computers and related technologies (Training Teachers to Use ICT, 2003). Excellence in Education for the New Millennium focuses on the need to upgrade the skills and education of teachers at all levels (Ministry of Education [MOE], 1999). Teachers teaching at different stages of schooling should acquire specific information technology (IT) skills that are relevant to their students learning at that stage. Appropriate in-service courses should be designed for induction training and periodic recurrent training. In pre-service courses, a core course on IT literacy and methodology courses for using IT as a tool relevant to the learning of the students in each stage needs to be designed immediately (Maheshwari et al, 2000). The question thus arises whether we, in Botswana, are geared to welcome a situation where computers and the Internet would be introduced to all schools. Are we preparing ourselves to move in that direction? Have we started empowering our teachers with computing skills? If we have, then how effective is that training? 403

4 Kabita Bose Purpose of the Study School teachers are being trained at various teacher training institutions. The Department of Teacher Training and Development (TT&D) has the responsibility of training primary and junior secondary school teachers in colleges of education, for both short- and long-term arrangements. It intends to produce teachers, formally trained to run the computer awareness programme, in Molepolole and Tonota College of Education, which trains teachers for junior secondary schools (Magetse, 1999). However, Excellence in Education for the New Millennium (MOE, 1999) emphasised in the curriculum development and evaluation of the primary level that, in addition to its subjects, the emerging issue of computer skills will be integrated and infused into the core and optional subjects at the upper primary level. Thus, it is important to find out whether there is any computer training available in any teacher training institution that is preparing teachers for primary level and, if available, how effective it is. The study therefore investigates the status and effectiveness of computer training offered at a sample of tertiary teacher training institutions (TTTIs) preparing primary school teachers, in the southern region of Botswana. It explores the extent to which they are trained to cope with the new situation/demands and makes suggestions for improvement. Research Objectives This study sets the following objectives: to find out whether computer training is available in TTTIs; to find out the effectiveness of the computer training programme if available in TTTIs; to compare the computer training programme offered in different TTTIs; to find out whether the computer training programme satisfies the students; to suggest ways of improving the computer training programme in TTTIs. Methodology The research approach used a survey methodology. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information. It adopted quantitative and qualitative approaches in assessing attitudes and views of the students in particular. Population and Sampling The population of the present study included three TTTIs preparing in-service primary school teachers from the southern region of Botswana. Out of the four colleges that are offering a diploma to primary school teachers, two colleges, i.e. college A and college B, were selected for the present study due to budget and time constraints/convenience. In addition, a degree awarding institution, C, was included in the population of the present study. Each institution had 404

5 COMPUTER TRAINING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS roughly 100 students enrolled in the final year of study. Out of the total strength, 42 students from college of education A, 47 students from college of education B and 81 students from degree-awarding institution C could be selected in the present study, who were completing the teacher training programme. A random purposive sampling method was used to select the population as it was found to be the most appropriate one for the nature of the present study. Instruments A Student Questionnaire The questionnaire was designed by the researcher and was later critiqued by three other colleagues (UB) for clarity. It was divided into various parts, such as, demographic information, which dealt with gender, institutions attended, and area of specialisation. The next section dealt with a number of probing questions on availability of computer training, specific areas covered under computer training, the skills acquired in teaching learning processes and daily life experiences, use of the Internet and facilities, and whether the trainees were satisfied with the training. Data Collection The heads of the institutions were contacted and their permission was sought to conduct the study in their institutions. Students were selected as available from each institution and data was collected by administering the questionnaires in a classroom with the help of the teaching staff. The researcher first explained the purpose of the study, then explained the items of the questions to the respondents, and then collected the data. The researcher also studied the course outline followed by different institutions. Data Analysis Once the data had been collected, it was codified and entered into the computer for analysing, by using SPSS. The data was analysed by using simple percentages, frequency tables and cross-tabulations wherever necessary. The course outline/syllabus of the computer training in different TTTIs was also analysed to support the findings. Findings and Discussions A prerequisite for an acceptable level of training would be the provision of ICT as a subject in the teacher education pre-service curriculum (Information and Communication Technology and Teacher Education in Chile, 1999). Thus, the first question was whether the students received any computer training as part of their teacher education programme. The findings of the study show (Table I) that 92.9% of the overall sample had computer training and only 7.1% of 405

6 Kabita Bose students did not have any computer training. This establishes that TTTIs have introduced computer training programmes and are preparing the students to face the new challenges of ICT. Response Institutions % A B C Total Yes No Total Table I. Computer training. However, Table I also shows that 11 respondents from A and one respondent from B did not receive any computer training. In A and B the computer training was included under Communication and Studies Skills and not as an individual, separate, structured, compulsory course. This could perhaps have made it easy for some of the students to avoid it, whereas the students at C received a separate, structured, compulsory, two-credit, Computer Awareness course. In addition, they were also offered a specialised two-credit, core course, on Computer Applications in Primary Schools in their final year of studies. Thus, the question of not receiving any computer training did not arise, as it is difficult to avoid a compulsory core course. Effective Computer Training The issue of the effectiveness of the computer training was the most crucial one. What is an effective computer training programme? How can it be measured? The effectiveness of a computer training programme could be measured by its utility in one s professional life and in personal life experiences. A primary school teacher can make the teaching/learning process more efficient by using computers as they can provide better learning results, and help the teacher to adapt to the individual learner and his/her needs. Teachers now have the responsibility to think about ways to use ICT within their daily lessons. Even teachers who do not have any affinity with computers do feel the need and pressure to start working with computers (Socrates Programme, 2002). Thus, if a teacher uses computers for teaching/learning purposes, develops teaching aids, prepares documents for classroom usage, maintains classroom records for the attendance register, fees register, marks register, etc., does research by acquiring new information and knowledge, then they could be considered computer literate. A primary school teacher who can use a computer in daily life activities, such as writing letters, maintaining budgets, sending s, using the Internet, etc., would definitely have acquired computer literacy. So to measure the effectiveness of the computer training, an effort was made to find out the skills that were acquired by students in using computers (see Table II). 406

7 Activities Respondents (%) Teaching/learning purposes 49 Teaching aids 44 Daily life experiences 38 Document preparations 63 Record keeping 51 Research 22 Internet Table II. Computing skills acquired. COMPUTER TRAINING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Table II does not give a very encouraging picture. The provided training does not seem to be very effective. Only 44-49% of students could use computers for developing teaching aids and for teaching/learning experiences. The rest of the students did not acquire skills in using computers in these areas. Hence, it could be interpreted that when the students are back in their field they would not be able to cope with the situation where a computer is integrated and infused in core and optional subjects in the upper primary level as it is being planned. The use of computers in document preparation and record keeping is relatively high. Table II also reveals that 51% of trainees could use computers in the task of record keeping and 63% of students could prepare documents. This raises our hopes, as using computers in these areas definitely ensures a person s computer literacy. It enables a teacher to create documents like class notes, a timetable and an attendance register, a fees register, etc., which would make his/her life easier and would make them more efficient. In a draft ELearning Focus Group working document, it was stated that for lifelong learning to be realised, it is important to focus on using ICT in varied contexts, rather than being restricted to a particular subject, theme or teaching objective (ELearning Focus Group Teacher Education, 2003). Computers are used in our daily life very extensively these days. Today one uses a computer to create documents such as letters, greeting cards, calendars, posters, for keeping household budgets, creating a database of phone numbers, addresses and birth dates, and so on. However, the use of computers in the sample s daily life experiences is rather low, with only 38% having acquired this skill. Limited access to computers could perhaps account for this response. The percentage of students using computers for research work was rather low as only 22% felt that they could apply computers for this purpose. This means that the use of the Internet for research work is not very common in these institutions. In today s world, computer literacy is determined by one s ability to communicate through the Internet and . Use of computers for communications seems to be rather low in the present study. Only 20% of students use the Internet and 21% of students use facilities. This definitely 407

8 Kabita Bose needs more attention. The teacher has a changing role now. Earlier, a teacher was an instructor, but with the entrance of computers, this role is partly taken over by computers, by the Internet and sometimes by experts outside the school. The role of the teacher has shifted more in the direction of mentor, coach, guide and motivator (Socrates Programme, 2002). Therefore, courses should be offered for primary school teachers which train them to explore the potential of the Internet in finding and downloading various resources from the Web (lesson plans, activities, songs, texts, images) and creating their own classroom activities based on them (British Council Hungary Summer School Programme, 2003). A model pre-service course for primary school teachers should enable a teacher to employ ICT tools competently for their own and pupils benefit in dealing with word processing, sending s, presentation software and data handling, and enable them to use a range of ICT resources at the level of general users (Mallik, 2003). Current provision does not seem to be very effective in this respect. Computer Training at Various Teacher Training Institutions On further analysis of the data (Figure 1), it becomes rather evident that the computer training at A and B is not effective at all, whereas the training programme offered at C is significantly better. Skills acquired at different Institutions Percentage 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% A B C Skills Figure 1. Skills acquired at different institutions. Figure 1 shows that as high as 63-80% of students from C can use a computer for teaching/learning purposes, for preparing teaching aids, for use in daily life experiences, for preparing documents and for record-keeping purposes, whereas only 6-29% from A and 13-48% from B can use computers in these areas. 408

9 COMPUTER TRAINING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Table III further shows that the use of computers in research, Internet and is low in C also, but the use of computers in these areas is almost absent in A and B. This is rather worrying and one needs to explore the reasons behind this. On probing further, it was clear that in A and B the computer training is offered as a part of Communication and Studies Skills, and not as a fullyfledged computer course. Thus, the training is not structured and limited in terms of time and the elements that are covered. On the other hand, the students at C are offered a structured, compulsory, two-credit Computer Awareness course and a two-credit course on Computer Applications in Primary Schools, which intends to prepare them for using computers in primary schools. Thus, the next step was now to find out the basic element of the computer training module that was offered, the software that was used, as this has a direct relationship with how effective a computer training programme is. Table III illustrates the basic elements of computer training courses offered at different institutions. Topics Institutions C A B Word processor (MS Word) Yes Yes Yes Spreadsheet (Excel) Yes Yes Yes Presentation packages (MS PowerPoint) Yes No No Graphics (MS Paint) Yes No No Computer Basics Yes Yes Yes Internet Yes No No Table III. Basic elements of computer training module The data in Table III reveals that students in A and B were trained only in word processing, in using spreadsheets and in computer basics, which taught them how to open and close the computers. On the other hand, in C the students were exposed to word processor, spreadsheet, MS-Paint and PowerPoint presentations. The Internet was also a part of the training package in C. The data, however, revealed that each of the institutions neglected packages like databases and the use of CD-ROMs consisting of multimedia packages. This means the importance of databases in teaching/learning and daily life experiences was not emphasised. Similarly, the relevance of multimedia packages in the life of a primary school teacher was not realised. Thus, a serious effort must be made to include these in the computer training syllabus of teacher training institutions. An effort should also be made to include a module on Awareness of Computer Security and Maintenance, as this would prepare our teachers to deal more efficiently with potentially disruptive events. 409

10 Kabita Bose Students Views About 85% of the trained population from A, B and C were dissatisfied with the existing situation. The dissatisfied students expressed that allowing students to have more contact time, by introducing more computers and by recruiting competent computer teachers, could improve the training by introducing a core, compulsory course and by making the Internet more accessible. Some of the students from A and B expressed their feelings as follows: Provide a computer lab that is necessary for computer Education. Allocate more computers. They are not enough. Computer courses to be offered at every level. It should be introduced in the first year of study and should be continued till the end. It should be taught the whole year and not just a few weeks. Students should get ample time to learn more what they cover in a class lesson. It should be made a full time course, and treated as a core course. The Internet should be accessible. Employ specialised people to teach computers. This makes it very clear that students of A and B do feel that there is a necessity of providing a good computer lab with enough computers in it. They do expect that a structured computer course should be introduced as a compulsory, core subject right from the beginning of the teacher s training programme and computer specialists should be employed who could give good training to the student teachers. They also expressed the need for Internet access, which helps a teacher in lifelong learning. The students of C were mainly dissatisfied due to lack of functional computers in the already existing computer labs. They did not like to share computers as they felt it interfered with their learning. They also demanded more computer time, which will enable them to have more hands-on practice. Some of their feelings are expressed as follows: There should be a supply of more computers as lack of computers hinder our practice. Some motivated students lose interest, as they do not get a chance to do hands-on-practice. Our sponsors should buy computers for each student. They should be part of stationery. 410

11 Most of the computers are not in good condition. COMPUTER TRAINING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Students should have the privilege of using computers regularly. Sharing a computer leads to inadequate training. Hire more computer instructors. We are not given enough time for practising. Give more time for hands-on-practice. Students do not have access to the Internet. They need to be trained on the use of the Internet and the . More printers should be provided. Only 15% of the total population were satisfied that they could prepare documents and teaching aids and could communicate through the Internet. Interestingly, all those who were so satisfied were from C. Recommendations Based on the findings of the study, some key inferences and recommendations for computing provision and training are made. Standardisation of Curriculum and Syllabus Computer training should be made a compulsory, core course with a structured syllabus, which is examinable and introduced right at the beginning of the teacher training programme, so that by the end of the teacher training programme the students are confident and well versed with it. Strengthening of the Public Network Infrastructure Greater attention needs to be paid to the use of the Internet in research and effective communications. The Internet should be made available in all teacher training institutions to enable students and staff to do research, and communicate with the rest of the world more effectively. The students should be able to exploit modern information sources for themselves as continuing learners (Final Report to SOEID, 2003). The current level and type of connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa cannot support effective networks to support educational initiatives (IMFUNDO, 2003). Thus, to improve the situation it is recommended that the quality and available infrastructure and connectivity be improved as ICT can effectively support basic education in developing countries by creating environments more conducive to teacher training. 411

12 Kabita Bose Provision of Computer Time The contact time of the students with the computers should be increased, as it is not enough, and the students need more access to it and to practice more with whatever they have learnt. Strengthening Basic ICT Infrastructure To improve the present condition, the number of computers should be increased, as most of the time the students either do not have access to it or are sharing computers, due to the shortage of computers in the lab. This interferes with their learning and the development of computing skills. Availability of Competent Teachers (Recruitment and Retention) There is a need for the recruitment and retention of qualified teachers who could handle a computer course more efficiently and competently, as the teachers are not qualified and confident enough to teach the course, and they need to understand the application of ICT to support their teaching and administration. Conclusion This article has evaluated computer training for primary teacher training programmes being run at tertiary teacher training institutions in the southern region of Botswana. The findings of the present study reveal that the computer training available in A and B is not very effective. A low participation in the study, i.e % only, demonstrates the lack of interest and confidence in the course, whereas in C, 81% of students were willing to participate in the study and the computer training appears to be more effective as compared to A and B (Table III). This could be attributed to the introduction of the computer training course in C, as a compulsory, core course with a structured course outline. The study also suggests that the students in general, i.e. in A, B and C are not satisfied with the existing scenario and required certain inputs to reinforce the computer training programme. Students from each of the institutions indicated a lack of computers and shortage of computer time as the main sources of dissatisfaction. Poor Internet access was another source of dissatisfaction amongst students and greater attention needs to be paid to the use of the Internet in research and effective communications. The students should be able to exploit modern information sources for themselves as continuing learners (Final Report to SOEID, 2003). The current level and type of connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa cannot support effective networks to support educational initiatives (IMFUNDO, 2003). Thus, to improve the situation it is recommended that the quality and available infrastructure and connectivity be improved as ICT can effectively support basic education in developing countries by creating environments more conducive to teacher training. Students of A 412

13 COMPUTER TRAINING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS and B also felt that a compulsory, core course in computers with a structured course outline should be introduced. In a nutshell there is an urgent need to address five issues namely: standardisation of curriculum and syllabus; strengthening of public network infrastructure; provision of adequate computer time; strengthening basic ICT infrastructure; availability of competent teachers in order to make a computer training programme effective. These five issues could well be looked into by the policy and strategy efforts being undertaken by the Government of Botswana. As far as the standardisation of the curriculum and syllabus are concerned, this would perhaps be taken care of within the ongoing efforts without need for large additional resources. In the case of the next three, viz., strengthening of the public network infrastructure, adequate computers and computer time, and strengthening of the basic ICT infrastructure, large economic resources would be needed. Botswana would be in a position to organise such resources on its own with the limited assistance that Botswana accepts from aid agencies like the European Union, World Bank, UN agencies, etc. The real challenge would be to balance the political efforts that would like to influence the deployment of these resources to specific regions of the country so widespread and diverse. The region and location wise deployment for a just and equitable distribution would, indeed, be a political challenge as influence to enhance the programme in certain regions may be dominant. The greatest challenge would perhaps be to meet the need for human resources to set up, run, maintain and support the ICT infrastructure. The availability and retention of qualified and competent teachers will similarly need to receive high priority. It will be a political challenge to ensure a just and equitable distribution of resources at local and regional level, as influences to enhance the programme in certain regions may be dominant. The economic and political considerations in balancing citizen expectations and empowerment versus efforts to attract dedicated and competent expatriate human resources to fill the gaps where citizens are not available are delicate, but must be addressed. Ethnographic research approaches, perhaps, offer a way forward in informing these important decisions. Acknowledgement I would like to thank Mrs Ruth Monau (Lecturer, Department of Primary Education, UB) for helping in the development of the research instrument and for administering it in A and B. 413

14 Kabita Bose Correspondence Kabita Bose, Department of Primary Education, University of Botswana, Botswana References British Council Hungary Summer School Programme (2003) Intercultural Learning through English, Course Descriptions, May 22 June 28, Available at: ELearning Focus Group Teacher Education (2003) The Use of Information and Communication Technology for Learning. Available at: education/programmes/socrates/minerva/teachereducationpdf.pdf Final Report to Scottish Office Education and Industry Department (2003) Teachers ICT Skills and Knowledge Needs. Available at: ict/append-section1.htm Historic Pan-African Workshop (2003) ICTs in African Schools: a workshop for education practitioners and policy makers, Botswana, 28 April 2 May Available at: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Teacher Education in Chile (1999) Trends and Issues. Available at: itr.chile.en.pdf IMFUNDO (2003) Improving Access to Education via Satellites in Africa: a primer. Available at: Magetse, T. (1999) Information and Communication Technology Policy in Education, a paper presented at the National Workshop on ICT in Swaziland Education held October 2, 1997, Royal Swazi Spa, Swaziland DNFE. Available at: Maheshwari, A.N., Mallik, U. & Bose, K. (2000) A Blueprint for Smart Schools, Perspective in Education, 16, Special Issue (February), pp Mallik, U. (2003) Training Programme for Teacher Educators: from Africa and India. India Delhi: NcERT. Ministry of Education (1999) Excellence in Education for the New Millenium. Botswana: Printing and Publishing Company (Pty) Ltd. National Development Plan 9 (2003) Ministry of Finance and Development Planning, 2003/4-2008/9. Gaborone: Government Printer. Sebetela, L.B., Hon. (2003) WITFOR 2003, White Book. Vienna: IFIP Press. Sinko, M. & Lehtinen, E. (1999) The Challenges of ICT: in Finnish Education. Jyvaaskyla: Atena. Socrates Programme (2002) Minerva Action Project: cp gr-minerva-odl Integration of ICT in Education Guidelines for Primary School Teachers, Ipetcco Consortium, November Available at: assets/dels/teacher%20guidelines.pdf Training Teachers to Use ICT (2003). Available at: IcTS_Africa_03.htm 414

15 COMPUTER TRAINING AND PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS Vision 2016 (1997) Towards Prosperity for All Long Term Vision for Botswana. Gaborone: Botswana: Presidential Task Group. 415

16 Kabita Bose 416