The origin and evolution of life on Earth

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1 The origin and evolution of life on Earth

2 How did life begin on Earth Chapter 6 DNA & hereditary vs. spontaneity Miller-Urey experiment

3 DNA & Hereditary Last day, we discussed two out of three key features of life on Earth structural units of life - cells metabolic processes that keep cells alive today third feature reproduction of cells and the passing on of hereditary information - DNA

4 The Structure of DNA The rungs in the DNA ladder are made of four DNA bases (nucleotides) Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) These are organic molecules themselves The backbone are phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases encodes genetic information

5 Seeing is believing A. Franklin & Gosling 1953 : X-ray diffraction photo 51 of B-DNA B. Watson & Crick 1953 : model of the helical-x and layer lines in blue. (1962)

6 Replication of DNA Other bases are floating in the cell (recall that cells need liquid water)

7 How evolution works

8 How evolution works In general, there are not enough resources (e.g. food) for all organisms to survive and thrive.

9 How evolution works In general, there are not enough resources (e.g. food) for all organisms to survive and thrive. Within a given population, individuals display variations in their physical characteristics.

10 How evolution works In general, there are not enough resources (e.g. food) for all organisms to survive and thrive. Within a given population, individuals display variations in their physical characteristics. Some traits will increase chances of survival and subsequent reproduction, while others may decrease them or make no difference.

11 How evolution works In general, there are not enough resources (e.g. food) for all organisms to survive and thrive. Within a given population, individuals display variations in their physical characteristics. Some traits will increase chances of survival and subsequent reproduction, while others may decrease them or make no difference. When traits are related to genetics (sequences of DNA), then successful or naturally selected characteristics can be preferentially passed on to the next generation.

12 How evolution works In general, there are not enough resources (e.g. food) for all organisms to survive and thrive. Within a given population, individuals display variations in their physical characteristics. Some traits will increase chances of survival and subsequent reproduction, while others may decrease them or make no difference. When traits are related to genetics (sequences of DNA), then successful or naturally selected characteristics can be preferentially passed on to the next generation. Genetic information carried in DNA is the means by which characteristics are inherited from one generation to the next. It is difficult to imagine life without heredity.

13 Mono lake (CA)

14 Arsenic-driven life in Mono lake? (2010)

15 Arsenic-driven life in Mono lake? (2010) Bacteria that had rewritten its DNA, preferring arsenic to phosphates for DNA backbone Debunked in 2012 But, just to be clear: finding an organism that didn t need phosphorus, that used arsenic instead, would be one of the most significant scientific discoveries of all time. It would mean that Mono Lake was home to a form of life biologically distinct from all other known life on Earth. This would suggest that life got started on our planet not once, but at least twice, that the origin of life on Earth was not a freak accident requiring highly specialized circumstances, but a relatively commonplace event. And that in turn would strengthen the argument that life is likely to be present on other worlds as well.

16 How did life originate on Earth? All life today on Earth is descended from other life We do not see any cases of life arising spontaneously all modern-day cells contain DNA, which is too sophisticated for life to have originated recently However, the early Earth would have been more suitable for the spontaneous emergence of life lots of organic material little oxygen in the atmosphere less competitive environment

17 The Miller-Urey experiment Urey proposed that reactions in the atmosphere of the early Earth would produce simple organic chemicals, e.g. methane, ammonia, water, hydrogen sulphide. Miller then demonstrated that combining a gaseous mixture of the above chemicals in a spark chamber would create 22 types amino acids - some of the simplest building blocks of life. The Urey component of the experiment is still debated, i.e. did the simple organics form in the atmosphere or via volcanic outgassing. How long did the hydrogen last? However, the Miller component has been extended to demonstrate the creation of DNA-nucleotides and other components of life.

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19

20 CO 2 CO + [O] (atomic oxygen) CH 4 + 2[O] CH 2 O + H 2 O CO + NH 3 HCN + H 2 O CH 4 + NH 3 HCN + 3H 2 These compounds then react under high energy shock conditions, forming amino acids (Strecker synthesis) and other biomolecules: CH 2 O + HCN + NH 3 NH 2 -CH 2 -CN + H 2 O NH 2 -CH 2 -CN + 2H 2 O NH 3 + NH 2 -CH 2 - COOH (glycine)

21 Miller-Urey today Volcan Chaiten 2008

22 What causes lightening? Scientists are still puzzled as to what triggers a spark during a thunderstorm. The latest attempt to answer the question only adds to the intrigue. by Philip Ball for BBC Future (27 Sept 2012) It s not yet agreed on how a thundercloud gets charged up in the first place. Somehow the motions of air, cloud droplets, and precipitation (at that altitude, ice particles) conspire to separate positive from negative charge at the scale of individual molecules. It seems that ice particles acquire electrical charge as they collide, rather as rubbing can induce static electricity, and that somehow smaller ice particles tend to become positively charged while larger ones become negatively charged. As the small particles are carried upwards by convection currents, the larger ones sink under gravity, and so their opposite charges get separated, creating an electrical field. A lightning strike discharges this field. While many details of this process aren t at all clear, one of the biggest mysteries is how the spark gets triggered. Since the electrical fields measured in thunderclouds don t seem nearly big enough to induce a lightning discharge spontaneously, something is needed to seed it. One idea is that they are triggered by cosmic rays streaming into the atmosphere from space. [goes on to explain experiments]

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24 The origin and evolution of life on Earth

25 A Brief History of Life on Earth

26 A Brief History of Life on Earth Biochemistry on Earth. Miller-Urey experiment

27 A Brief History of Life on Earth Biochemistry on Earth. Miller-Urey experiment RNA world & transition from chemistry to biology. The first cell - the single common ancestor.

28 A Brief History of Life on Earth Biochemistry on Earth. Miller-Urey experiment RNA world & transition from chemistry to biology. The first cell - the single common ancestor. Rise of life on Earth basic code: 20 amino acids, DNA heredity, ATP-based cell energy. The age of bacteria/archaea. The rise of eukareyea.

29 A Brief History of Life on Earth Biochemistry on Earth. Miller-Urey experiment RNA world & transition from chemistry to biology. The first cell - the single common ancestor. Rise of life on Earth basic code: 20 amino acids, DNA heredity, ATP-based cell energy. The age of bacteria/archaea. The rise of eukareyea. Where did this occur? sides of deep sea volcanic vents (chemotrophs) shallow ponds (phototrophs) protected inside of rocks

30 Stromatolites 3.5 billion yr, photosynthesis. Microfossils of ancient living cells?

31 Stromatolites 3.5 billion yr, photosynthesis. Microfossils of ancient living cells?

32 Stromatolites 3.5 billion yr, photosynthesis. Microfossils of ancient living cells?

33 A Brief History of Life on Earth

34 A Brief History of Life on Earth Primitive anaerobic microbial life forms anaerobic life doesn t need molecular oxygen to survive

35 A Brief History of Life on Earth Primitive anaerobic microbial life forms anaerobic life doesn t need molecular oxygen to survive Rapid evolution and diversification due to high mutation rate in RNA copying fewer enzymes would have meant more RNA copying errors

36 A Brief History of Life on Earth Primitive anaerobic microbial life forms anaerobic life doesn t need molecular oxygen to survive Rapid evolution and diversification due to high mutation rate in RNA copying fewer enzymes would have meant more RNA copying errors Photosynthesis and cyanobacteria => buildup of oxygen extinction of many anaerobic microbes, rise of aerobic life forms production of ozone, the land becomes habitable

37 A Brief History of Life on Earth Primitive anaerobic microbial life forms anaerobic life doesn t need molecular oxygen to survive Rapid evolution and diversification due to high mutation rate in RNA copying fewer enzymes would have meant more RNA copying errors Photosynthesis and cyanobacteria => buildup of oxygen extinction of many anaerobic microbes, rise of aerobic life forms production of ozone, the land becomes habitable Rise of multi-cellular organisms (about 1.2 Gyr ago)

38 A Brief History of Life on Earth Primitive anaerobic microbial life forms anaerobic life doesn t need molecular oxygen to survive Rapid evolution and diversification due to high mutation rate in RNA copying fewer enzymes would have meant more RNA copying errors Photosynthesis and cyanobacteria => buildup of oxygen extinction of many anaerobic microbes, rise of aerobic life forms production of ozone, the land becomes habitable Rise of multi-cellular organisms (about 1.2 Gyr ago) The Cambrian Explosion (545 Myr ago)

39 A Brief History of Life on Earth Primitive anaerobic microbial life forms anaerobic life doesn t need molecular oxygen to survive Rapid evolution and diversification due to high mutation rate in RNA copying fewer enzymes would have meant more RNA copying errors Photosynthesis and cyanobacteria => buildup of oxygen extinction of many anaerobic microbes, rise of aerobic life forms production of ozone, the land becomes habitable Rise of multi-cellular organisms (about 1.2 Gyr ago) The Cambrian Explosion (545 Myr ago) Colonization of land (475 Myr ago)

40 RNA - transition from chemistry to biology? Pre-cell (not living) Cells (living)

41 RNA - transition from chemistry to biology? Pre-cell (not living) Cells (living)

42 The RNA world At some point a particularly remarkable molecule was formed by accident. We will call it the Replicator. It may not have been the biggest or the most complex molecule around, but it had the extraordinary property of being able to create copies of itself. RNA is still a complex molecule. How could such a molecule arise by chance? Richard Dawkins Did increasingly complex cycles of organic chemical reactions (perhaps facilitated by mineral clay surfaces) build the precursor of RNA? Faster, more accurate replicators could then evolve quickly and begin to dominate (DNA - fewer mistakes)

43 The RNA world Natural selection gets started and can potentially lead to longer RNA molecules storing more and more genetic information problem though are error rates! G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G C C G T U T C U G G U U G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G=A G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G=C G C C G T U T C U G G U U Problem is that 1 in 20 nucleotides spontaneously mispairs in solutions - information can only be maintained if the error-rate is low. - thus DNA outcompetes RNA for passing hereditary information, but RNA still participates as ribozymes (protein enzymes acting as catalysts)

44 Could life have migrated to Earth after originating elsewhere?

45 Could life have migrated to Earth after originating elsewhere? If life originated elsewhere in the Solar System, could it have migrated to Earth on a meteorite or comet and seeded life on Earth? This idea is known as panspermia

46 Could life have migrated to Earth after originating elsewhere? If life originated elsewhere in the Solar System, could it have migrated to Earth on a meteorite or comet and seeded life on Earth? This idea is known as panspermia Challenges would include surviving the expulsion, potentially millions of years in space, and the fiery descent to Earth.

47 Could life have migrated to Earth after originating elsewhere? If life originated elsewhere in the Solar System, could it have migrated to Earth on a meteorite or comet and seeded life on Earth? This idea is known as panspermia Challenges would include surviving the expulsion, potentially millions of years in space, and the fiery descent to Earth. Organic compounds such as amino acids can be transferred, e.g., have been discovered within meteorites (Murchison).

48 Could life have migrated to Earth after originating elsewhere? If life originated elsewhere in the Solar System, could it have migrated to Earth on a meteorite or comet and seeded life on Earth? This idea is known as panspermia Challenges would include surviving the expulsion, potentially millions of years in space, and the fiery descent to Earth. Organic compounds such as amino acids can be transferred, e.g., have been discovered within meteorites (Murchison). But could this new life survive and grow on Earth. and isn t this just dodging the question?

49 Could life have migrated to Earth after originating elsewhere? If life originated elsewhere in the Solar System, could it have migrated to Earth on a meteorite or comet and seeded life on Earth? This idea is known as panspermia Challenges would include surviving the expulsion, potentially millions of years in space, and the fiery descent to Earth. Organic compounds such as amino acids can be transferred, e.g., have been discovered within meteorites (Murchison). But could this new life survive and grow on Earth. and isn t this just dodging the question? or in reverse - Could life from Earth have seeded life elsewhere in the Solar System?

50 Compound Class Concentration(ppm) Amino Acids CM CI ~5 Aliphatic hydrocarbons >35 Aromatic hydrocarbons 3.3 Fullerenes > 1 Carboxylic acids > 300 Hydroxycarboxylic acids 15 Dicarboxylic acids & Hydroxydicarboxylic acids 14 Purines & Pyrimidines 1.3 Basic N-heterocycles 7 Amines 8 Amides linear > 70 cyclic > 2 Alcohols 11 Aldehydes & Ketones 27 Sulphonic acids 68 Phosphonic acids 2

51 Abundances of soluble organic compounds in the Murchison meteorite (Botta & Bada 2002, Sephton 2002, 2004) Compound Class Concentration(ppm) Amino Acids CM CI ~5 Aliphatic hydrocarbons >35 Aromatic hydrocarbons 3.3 Fullerenes > 1 Carboxylic acids > 300 Hydroxycarboxylic acids 15 Dicarboxylic acids & Hydroxydicarboxylic acids 14 Purines & Pyrimidines 1.3 Basic N-heterocycles 7 Amines 8 Amides linear > 70 cyclic > 2 Alcohols 11 Aldehydes & Ketones 27 Sulphonic acids 68 Phosphonic acids 2

52 Martian microbes in ancient meteorite? Beer (microbe rich rock sample) in space - EuTEF on ISS housed samples until 2009

53 Those crazy Russians... Phobos-Grunt (2009) On the other hand - Galileo spacecraft sent into Jupiter to avoid Earth contamination of the Jovian satellites.

54 Some Review Questions Chapter 6, Would you believe it? p235 We discover an intact fossil of a eukaryotic cell that seems to be 3.0 billion years old. Yes? No? Why? We find evidence that suggests molecular oxygen was abundant in Earth s atmosphere when life arose. Yes? No? Why? We discover that the first life created in the lab has a DNA genome, rather than a RNA genome. Yes? No? Why?

55 Summary: rise of life

56 Summary: rise of life Volcanic outgassing (surface or deep sea) provides organic chemical factory.

57 Summary: rise of life Volcanic outgassing (surface or deep sea) provides organic chemical factory. Evidence points to life arising as early as was practically possible (after the heavy bombardment phase).

58 Summary: rise of life Volcanic outgassing (surface or deep sea) provides organic chemical factory. Evidence points to life arising as early as was practically possible (after the heavy bombardment phase). No evidence for a second genesis.

59 Summary: rise of life Volcanic outgassing (surface or deep sea) provides organic chemical factory. Evidence points to life arising as early as was practically possible (after the heavy bombardment phase). No evidence for a second genesis. Life has altered the composition of the Earth s atmosphere.

60 Summary: rise of life Volcanic outgassing (surface or deep sea) provides organic chemical factory. Evidence points to life arising as early as was practically possible (after the heavy bombardment phase). No evidence for a second genesis. Life has altered the composition of the Earth s atmosphere. Without methanogens and photosynthesis Earth may have been subject to a runaway greenhouse effect - similar to Venus

61 Earth over time stromalites cyanobacteria hydrogen & helium burned off 31by solar wind. Kasting et al 2004

62 Carbon isotope ratios in ancient rocks linked to production of organic molecules? 13 C isotope record back to 3.8 Gyr inorganic rock 13C:12C = 1:90 higher % of 13C when 12C being used by organic molecules.

63 Stromatolites 3.5 billion yr, photosynthesis. Microfossils of ancient living cells?

64 Stromatolites 3.5 billion yr, photosynthesis. Microfossils of ancient living cells?

65 ~500 Myr

66 The Cambrian Explosion The Cambrian Explosion refers to the rapid emergence of diverse life-forms about 540 Myr ago Four keys factors which may have triggered this event: rise in oxygen levels increased genetic complexity climate change (end of most recent Snowball Earth episode) lack of predators

67 The KT impact Several mass extinction events have been observed in the fossil record since the Cambrian explosion. However, the KT event is also associated with the Iridium layer - a thin band of iridium rich deposits and ash. Iridium is rare in the Earths crust, it should sink to the Earth s core with the iron during differentiation. However, asteroids are rich in iridium. This led Luiz and Walter Alvarez (1978) to propose that the KT event was triggered by a massive impact (or series of impacts) by an asteroid (>100 kg, >10 km). The impact debris (ash, and dust) would have spread throughout the atmosphere causing a global cooling lasting years or decades. The KT event marked the extinction of the dinosaurs.

68

69 Craters in the Inner Solar System

70 Tunguska: 7.14am June 30th 1908

71 5 megaton asteroid airburst 20km 40km

72 5 megaton asteroid airburst 20km 40km

73 Are we safe now? Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (July 1994)

74 The Likelihood and Consequences of Impacts Tunguska SL9 KT Impact

75 How Much Warning Would We Have? Comet Hyakutake (1997): 2 months Comet Hale-Bopp (1997): 2 years Comet McNaught (2007): 5 months Comet Holmes (2007): 182 years

76

77 Tardigrades

78 "Eubacteria" (incl. Cyanobacteria) Various protists and algae Archaea Green plants (incl. some algae) Red algae Stramenopiles (e.g., brown algae) Fungi & Apicomplexa Choanoflagellates Metazoa (multicellular animals) >600 mya >1.25 bya >500 mya >455 mya >570 mya >1.8 bya >3.5 bya LUCA: last universal common ancestor

79 Next days Skim Ch 7 Try review questions Ch 6 - Questions #1-7, 11, 13, 15,-17, 33-39

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