Integrated geophysical and geotechnical assessment of the permanent site of Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Southwestern, Nigeria
|
|
- Wilfred Wood
- 7 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Available online at Advances in Applied Science Research, 2014, 5(2): ISSN: CODEN (USA): AASRFC Integrated geophysical and geotechnical assessment of the permanent site of Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Southwestern, Nigeria Oluwafemi O. and Ogunribido T. H. Tolulope Department of Geology and Applied Geophysics, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria ABSTRACT An integrated geophysical and geotechnical investigations were carried out at the permanent site of Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, southwestern Nigeria to determine the suitability of the soil as foundation support for engineering structures. The geophysical methods used for the investigation were the Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic (VLF - EM) and the Electrical Resistivity methods (ER). The VLF-EM measurements were taken at an interval of 20m along six traverse lines. Sixteen vertical electrical sounding (VES) were carried out. Four major geoelectric layers were delineated: the topsoil, weathered layer, fractured layer and fresh basement with resistivity ranging from Ωm, Ωm, Ωm and Ωm respectively. The thickness varies from m, m and m. The depth to the bedrock was less than 36.0m. Five soil samples were collected at depth of 1metre and were subjected to geotechnical tests such as compaction, consistency limits, unconfined compressive strength, specific gravity and California Bearing Ratio. Geotechnical properties indicates that the soil is good for engineering construction or as fill materials and geophysical investigation shows that the foundations of sky -scraper should be erected on piles to carry the loads to competent soil. Adequate measures should be taken since part of the study area is consisting of clay and clayey sands at shallow depths to avoid foundation failure or sudden collapse of engineering structures. Geotechnical problems could also be avoided, by the construction of drainage channels for run-off. Keywords: Very low electromagnetic, geoelectric section, foundations, geotechnical properties, fills materials INTRODUCTION Failures of engineering structures is a common phenomenon A pre-foundation study is essential before the design of foundation of any engineering construction. Environmental and engineering applications of surface geophysical techniques have gained wide interest in the last few decades. This is evidenced by the intensive research and exploration works using DC resistivity, ground penetrating radar and electromagnetic techniques [1]. These methods are quick, cheap and non-invasive means is used to provide information about the subsurface properties, depth to bedrock, location and distribution of conductive fluids, location and orientation of fractures [2]. Soil is indispensable material on which engineering structures are constructed. Therefore a detailed investigation of the subsurface materials of the proposed site is an important task needed to be considered before the erection of any structure to avoid foundation failure and undue loss of lives and properties. Factors responsible for failure of engineering structures include poor construction materials, non compliance to specifications, inadequate supervision and nature of the subsurface conditions of the ground on which the building is sited. To locate a successful site for construction in the sedimentary environment, a detailed subsurface study should be carried out. Site investigation is therefore required for a long term performance and stability of structures. The extent of such investigation depends on the type of foundation, the complexity of the soil conditions and available information on existing foundations on similar soils in order to ascertain the strength, bearing capacity and factor of safety of such soil. This has led to the geophysical and geotechnical assessment of the study area with the aim to investigate the shallow subsurface setting, 199
2 mapping of the fracture zones and any other geological structures that may contribute to the development of cracks or cause structural failure in any proposed engineering structures. Adekunle Ajasin University lies between latitudes 7 27' 21.6 N and 7 29' N ( and N in the Universal Traverse Mercator scale, UTM), and longitudes 5 43' and 5 44' East ( and E in the Universal Traverse Mercator scale, UTM both in Datum 100 Minna-Nigeria and zone 31N 0 0 E to 6 0 E). The site occupies an area of about 2km 2. It is characterized by relatively gentle undulating terrain with elevations of between 326 and 350m. The site is surrounded in the north and south ends by hills and inselbergs. The hills trend between and The area lies within the tropical rain forest belt characterized by alternating wet and dry seasons with a mean annual rainfall of 1300mm and the drainage pattern is mainly dendritic. The area is characterized with fairly uniform temperature and high relative humidity [3]. The vegetation is densely evergreen consisting of palm trees, bamboo trees, thick grasses, moist deciduous trees, herbaceous plants and wooden shrubs. The study area is part of the Basement Complex of Southwestern Nigeria, underlain by migmatite- gneiss- quartzite complex with the granite gneiss and grey gneiss being the major units while the minor units include mafic, granodiorite, pegmatite, garnet-sillimanite gneiss and quartzite [4]. Based on field study area, the identified lithological units comprise of migmatite gneiss, charnokitic rocks and fine to medium grained biotite granite (Figure 1). Migmatite gneiss are dominant in the study area which are extensively weathered and fractured, with prominent direction of foliation lying between and with easterly dips of 44 0 and They occur as ridges and hills which contain quartz veins, dykes, quartzo-feldspathic intrusion and pegmatitic veins usually very extensive. The granite forms the basement lithology in some other parts of the study area. These rocks general trend is N-S direction typical of the basement complex rocks. Structural features such as faults, joints, xenoliths, folds, dykes etc. characterize the rocks. The older granite of the study area is grey with a speckled appearance caused by the darker crystals. Figure 1: Geological Map of Akungba Akoko (Extracted from Geological Map of Ondo State) MATERIALS AND METHODS 1kg of each soil samples were collected from five locations in the study area from burrow pit below one meter depth. The soil samples collected were air dry for two weeks at the engineering Geology laboratory of the Federal University of Technology, Akure before they were subjected to the following tests: natural moisture content, 200
3 compaction, unconfined compressive strength, particle size, specific gravity, consistency limit and permeability test. Some researchers have worked on geotechnical properties of lateritic soils [5 9]. The very low frequency electromagnetic method (VLF EM) is a quick and powerful tool for the study of shallow conducting lineament features in the near surface earth [10]. It is an inductive technique, which uses electromagnetic signals of radio waves from remote military transmitters. These signals have frequency ranges between 15 and 30 KHz, and are propagated between the surface of the earth and the ionosphere causing the primary field. When there is a localized conductor, such as water-filled fractures, the primary field induces secondary currents inside that conductor, and these currents generate a secondary field which is different in phase and superimposed on the primary field. Thus, measuring the total field (primary and secondary) using VLF-EM receiver on the surface of the earth can help in detecting the conductive elongated structures, geological contacts like altered zones, faults and dykes [11]. The entire ABEM WADI system is portable equipment mounted on a belt worn by the user, which measures the inphase (Real) and quadrature (Imaginary) components of the induced vertical magnetic field as a percentage of the horizontal primary field. Six geophysical traverses were established within the survey area. The VLF-EM profiling was carried out using ABEM WADI instrument at 20 m interval along six traverses using the existing roads and footpaths with orientation at high angles to the direction of the transmitter. The WADI VLF-EM equipment detects the ratio (in percentage) between the vertical and horizontal components of the EM signal. Therefore, the in-phase and quadrature values in percentages were plotted against station positions using the Microsoft Excel Program. Qualitatively, the varying amplitude from this anomaly profiles is a measure of the conductivity changes in the subsurface. To produce 2-D models along the traverses in the study area, the Karous-Hjelt and Fraser filter [12] program was used to perform Karous-Hjelt and Fraser filtering on the VLF-EM data. The anomaly inflections appear as peak positive anomalies and false VLF anomaly inflections as negative anomalies of the profiles PERMANENT SITE ROAD PERMANENT SITE INSTITUTE OF VC'S COMPUTER BUILDING OFFICE CENTRE BUILDING SOC. & MGT. SC. OF SCIENCE I.P.T.P ROAD 3 4 FACULTY OF PIONEER HOSTEL ROAD LEGEND MAJOR ROAD VLF TRAVERSES VES STATIONS OF Figure 2: Geophysical Field Layout Map of the Study Area. In this study, vertical electrical sounding (VES) using Schlumberger array was adopted in order to study the variations in the resistivity distribution of the soil with depth. In this technique, vertical variations in the ground 201
4 apparent resistivity were measured with respect to a fixed centre of array by gradually expanding/increasing the electrode spacing. The equipment employed for the resistivity field data measurements was the ABEM 1000 SAS resistivity meter. Sixteen Vertical Electrical Resistivity Soundings were conducted at selected locations based on the results obtained from the VLF surveys along the traverses. Half current electrode spacing (AB/2) varying from 1 m to 100 m was used to be able to determine the depth to bedrock of the study area. The apparent resistivity values obtained from the vertical electrical sounding (VES) were plotted against electrode spacing (AB/2) on a bi-logarithmic graph paper. Visual inspection of these curves gave qualitative interpretation of the subsurface resistivity variations in order to determine the number and nature of the layering. This variation in resistivity is due to change in rock type, weathering characteristics and fluid content [13]. Quantitatively the sounding curves were interpreted by partial curve matching techniques [14] using a 2-layer master curves and the corresponding auxiliary curves. The geoelectric parameters from this manual interpretation were improved upon through the use of computer iteration technique using the computer algorithm RESIST Version 1.0 [15]. The interpretation results (layer resistivities and thicknesses) obtained was then presented as geoelectric sections which were used to generate layer parameter histogram. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The double plots of the raw real and filtered real components enable qualitative identification of the top of linear features i.e. points of coincident of crossovers and positive peaks of the real and filtered anomaly. From these plots minor linear features suspected to be faults/fractured zones were identified which were used to pick points for VES survey. The varying amplitude which is a measure of the anomaly changes in the subsurface vary in the study area, indicating variable conductivity changes of the subsurface materials. The K-H pseudo-section of the profile which is a measure of conductivity of the subsurface as a function of depth is shown in figures 3 to 8. This conductivity is shown as colour codes with response increasing from left to right (i.e. from negative to positive). The 2-D model section of the EM filtered real profiles reveal points showing conductive zones. Major conductive features of varying degree of conductivity trending in different directions were delineated on the section, for instance, between distances m and m conductive features are shown along traverse 1. Similarly, between distances m and m are other conductive bodies along traverse 2, all trending in the SW-NE directions. The same process of qualitative interpretation was adopted for the remaining pseudo-sections. The identified conductive zones are suspected to be fault/fracture zones and sheared zones within the bedrock. The fractured zones are considered as weak zones liable to cause foundation failure and total collapse of structures erected on it because it is characterized by low bearing capacity, and are consequently geotechnically incompetent to support the weight of heavy civil engineering structures. Based on this interpretation, the points of interest marked as conductive zones were among the points that were further investigated using the Vertical Electrical Resistivity Sounding (VES). W E Figure 3: Karous and Hjelt pseudosection along Traverse 1 202
5 Figure 4: Karous and Hjelt pseudosection along Traverse 2 Figure 5: Karous and Hjelt pseudosection along Traverse 3 Figure 6: Karous and Hjelt pseudosection along Traverse 4 203
6 Figure 7: Karous and Hjelt pseudosection along Traverse 5 Figure 8: Karous and Hjelt pseudosection along Traverse 6 The resistivity sounding curves identified range from A, H, K, KH, HA and KA varying between three to four geoelectric layers with the H as the predominant curve type (Figure 9). The geoelectric sections along the six traverses (Figures 10a to 10c) show maximum of four geologic subsurface layers comprising the top soil, weathered layer, fractured basement and fresh bedrock with the shallow subsurface composed of a relatively low resistivity formation relatively soft and correspond to areas saturated with water. The top soil with resistivity values varying from Ωm and thickness of between m is composed of clay, sandy clay/clayey sand/laterite. The low resistivity and loose soil are not suitable for use in shallow foundations except the sandy clay/clayey sand. Areas within the topsoil with resistivity values higher than 300 Ωm are considered competent for engineering construction especially the high rise structures. The weathered layer composed of clay and sandy clay has the resistivity values ranging from Ωm and thickness of between m. Clay may cause foundation failure because of the varying environmental conditions on them annually. Based on this, adequate and valuable measures must be taken especially on the major parts of the study area consist of clay and clayey sands at shallow depths as this might cause foundation failure and even sudden collapse on engineering structures. The fractured basement has resistivity values varying from Ωm and thickness of between 3-27m and the fresh basement ranging in resistivity from Ωm with the depth to bedrock generally less than 36m. The areas with fairly thick overburden are considered to be incompetent for any engineering structures when composed of geotechnically weak overburden materials. 204
7 Figure 9: Histogram of the VES curve types in the study area Depth (m) 0m VES 1 VES 4 VES 6 VES 7 VES m m 12m SCALE 10m 16m 20m m 24m LEGEND TOP SOIL 28m WEATHERED LAYER 32m FRACTURED LAYER FRESH BASEMENT 36m 2007 Figure 10a: Geoelectric section across VES stations 1, 4, 6, 7, and 9 205
8 Depth (m) 2m 4m 6m VES 2 VES 3 VES 5 VES 8 VES 10 VES m m 12m m 194 SCALE 10m LEGEND TOP SOIL WEATHERED LAYER 2m FRESH BASEMENT Figure 10b: Geoelectric section across VES stations 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, and 11 0m 2m VES 12 VES 13 VES 14 VES 15 VES Depth (m) 4m 6m m 10m LEGEND SCALE 10m TOP SOIL WEATHERED LAYER 2m FRESH BASEMENT Figure 10c: Geoelectric section across VES stations 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 Table 1: Summary of geotechnical properties of the soil samples Geotechnical properties Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Specific gravity Natural moisture content % Liquid limits % Plastic limits % Plasticity index % Optimum Moisture content % Maximum dry density Kg/ m UCS KN/ m
9 Summary of geotechnical results are presented in Table 1 and the compaction graph of the soil samples are presented in Figures Compaction and specific gravity Soil sample 3 has the highest maximum dry density (1885 kg/ m 3 ) and this high maximum dry density (MDD) might be due to high clay content and the highest optimum moisture content (OMC) was 16.6%. Federal ministry of Works and Housing recommend that for soil to be use as fills, MDD must be greater than 470kg/ m 3 and OMC less than 18%. This indicates soil samples in the study are can be use as fill materials (see Figures 11 to 15). The specific gravity ranges between 2.65 and 2.69 this also shows that the soil samples are good construction materials Consistency limits The liquid limits, plastic limits and plasticity index for soil sample 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the study area were 33.4, 19.4 and 14.0; 33.9, 20.1 and 13.8, 33.9, 20.1 and 13.8, 41.8, 21.4 and 20.4, 48.8, 23.1 and 25.7, 48.3, 22.0 and 26.3 respectively. The liquid limits are less than 50%, the plasticity ranges from low to intermediate. This indicates that the soil has good geotechnical properties; therefore the soil is good for construction purposes. Figure 11: Compaction graph for soil sample 1 \ Figure 12: Compaction graph for soil sample 2 207
10 Figure 13: Compaction graph for soil sample 3 Figure 14: Compaction graph for soil sample 4 Figure 15: Compaction graph for soil sample 5 Unconfined compressive strength From the unconfined compressive strength, the consistency of a clayey soil in the samples can be grouped as very stiff for soil samples 1, 3, 4 and 5 and stiff for soil sample 2 [16]. 208
11 CONCLUSION The integrated geophysical and geotechnical investigation carried out in this research are useful in characterizing the earth material that underlies the study area. The geophysical results revealed the presence of four subsurface geoelectric layers within the study area. These include topsoil, weathered layer, fractured basement and the fresh bedrock. Anomaly responses due to conductive clayey material and weathered layer/fracture zones were shown on the 2-D VLF-EM models. Shallow foundation is considered unsuitable for the proposed buildings because of the presence of incompetent materials hence, foundations of high rise building within the study area should be erected on piles which will carry the super-structural loads to competent soil, this will prevent foundation failure or sudden collapse of sky scrapers. The results of geotechnical properties of the soil samples shows that the soil are good as fill materials as well as for other engineering construction purposes. REFERENCES [1] Schoor, M. V, Journal of Applied Geophysics, 2002, 50, [2] Reynolds, J. M, An introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, West Sussex, England: John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 1997, pp 796. [3] Nigeria Meteorological Agency, (NIMET), Daily weather forecast on the Nigerian Television Authority, Oshodi, Lagos, 2007 [4] Rahaman, M. A, Geological Survey of Nigeria, 1988, [5] Ogunribido, T.H.T International Journal of Pure and Applied sciences and Technology, 2012, 10 (1), [6] Akpah, F. A, Onimisi, M, Lekdun, M.O, Global Journal of geological sciences, 2009, 7(2), [7] Jegede, O, Construction and building materials, 2000, 14, [8] Badmus, B.S, Research journal of soils and water Management, 2010, 1(1), [9] Mustapha, A.M, Alhassan, M, EJGE, 2012, 17, [10] Telford, W. M., King, W. F, Becker, A, Geological Survey of Canada, 1977, pp76. [11] McNeill, J. D, Labson, V. F, Electromagnetic Methods in Applied Geophysics, 2, B, Tulsa, Oklahoma: Society of Exploration Geophysicists, , [12] Pirttijarvi, M, KHFfilt Program, A Geophysical Software for Karous-Hjelt and Fraser Filtering on Geophysical VLF (Very-Low-Frequency) Data, Geophysics Division Department of Geosciences, University of Oulu: Oulu, Finland, [13] Arong, T. O., Oghenero, A. E. Advances in Applied Science Research, 2013, 4(5): 24. [14] Keller, G.V, Frischknecht, F. C, Electrical method in Geophysical Prospecting. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1966, 523. [15] Vander Velpen, B. P. A. M.Sc. Research Project, ITC, Delft, (Netherland, 1988). [16] DAS, B.M Fundamental of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, Thomson Learning, USA Frias M, Cement and Concrete,
Groundwater Potential of Basement Aquifers in Part of Southwestern Nigeria
American International Journal of Contemporary Research Vol. 3 No. 3; March 2013 Groundwater Potential of Basement Aquifers in Part of Southwestern Nigeria Yinusa Ayodele Asiwaju-Bello Department of Marine
More informationFracture zone detection using very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic method in parts of Oban Massif, southeastern Nigeria
Available online at www.pelagiaresearchlibrary.com Advances in Applied Science Research, 2013, 4(6):104-121 ISSN: 0976-8610 CODEN (USA): AASRFC Fracture zone detection using very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic
More informationGROUNDWATER PURVEYING USING VERY LOW FREQUENCY FRACTURE DELINEATION METHODS. Abstract
GROUNDWATER PURVEYING USING VERY LOW FREQUENCY FRACTURE DELINEATION METHODS Peter J. Hutchinson, The Hutchinson Group, Ltd., Murrysville, PA Maggie H. Beird, The Hutchinson Group, Ltd., Murrysville, PA
More informationModule 1 : Site Exploration and Geotechnical Investigation. Lecture 5 : Geophysical Exploration [ Section 5.1 : Methods of Geophysical Exploration ]
Objectives In this section you will learn the following General Overview Different methods of geophysical explorations Electrical resistivity method Seismic refraction method 5 Geophysical exploration
More informationNew York Science Journal, 2009, 2(3), ISSN 1554-0200 http://www.sciencepub.net/newyork, sciencepub@gmail.com
Electrical Method in Engineering and Environmental Studies: A Case Study of Gbagada Area, Lagos State, Nigeria. Oyedele, K.F and Ojo, A.O Dept of physics (Geophysics Programme) University of Lagos, Lagos
More informationINDIRECT METHODS SOUNDING OR PENETRATION TESTS. Dr. K. M. Kouzer, Associate Professor in Civil Engineering, GEC Kozhikode
INDIRECT METHODS SOUNDING OR PENETRATION TESTS STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT) Reference can be made to IS 2131 1981 for details on SPT. It is a field edtest to estimate e the penetration e resistance
More informationHIGHWAYS DEPARTMENT GUIDANCE NOTES ON SOIL TEST FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN
HIGHWAYS DEPARTMENT GUIDANCE NOTES ON SOIL TEST FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN Research & Development Division RD/GN/012 August 1990 HIGHWAYS DEPARTMENT GUIDANCE NOTES (RD/GN/012) SOIL TEST FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN Prepared
More informationAnirudhan I.V. Geotechnical Solutions, Chennai
Anirudhan I.V. Geotechnical Solutions, Chennai Often inadequate In some cases, excess In some cases, disoriented Bad investigation Once in a while good ones Depends on one type of investigation, often
More informationInternational Journal of Energy Science and Engineering. Vol. 1, No. 2, 2015, pp. 40-48 http://www.publicscienceframework.
International Journal of Energy Science and Engineering Vol. 1, No. 2, 2015, pp. 40-48 http://www.publicscienceframework.org/journal/ijese Integration of Geophysical and Geotechnical Methods to Site Characterization
More information6. Base your answer to the following question on the graph below, which shows the average monthly temperature of two cities A and B.
1. Which single factor generally has the greatest effect on the climate of an area on the Earth's surface? 1) the distance from the Equator 2) the extent of vegetative cover 3) the degrees of longitude
More informationElectromagnetic surveying
Electromagnetic surveying Dr. Laurent Marescot laurent@tomoquest.com 1 Introduction Electrical surveying Resistivity method Induced polarization method (IP) Self-potential (SP) method Higher frequency
More informationMatt Harris, Golder Associates (NZ) Ltd. The value of geophysics as a non-intrusive method for site characterisation
Matt Harris, Golder Associates (NZ) Ltd. The value of geophysics as a non-intrusive method for site characterisation Presentation Outline What is geophysics and how can it help me? Electrical Resistivity
More information1 Mobilisation and demobilisation 1 Deep boring sum 2 Cone penetration tests sum 3 Miscellenous tests sum
Malaysian Civil Engineering Standard Method of Measurement (MyCESMM) CLASS D: SITE INVESTIGATION WORK Measurement covered under other classes: Excavation not carried out for the purpose of soil investigation
More informationGeoelectric investigation of the effect of heavy clay deposits on aquifer potential in Okpara waterside Delta State, Nigeria
Journal of Geology and Mining Research Vol. 3(), pp. 39-45, Feruary 0 Availale online http://www.academicjournals.org/jgmr ISSN 006-9766 0 Academic Journals Full Length Research Paper Geoelectric investigation
More informationWILLOCHRA BASIN GROUNDWATER STATUS REPORT 2009-10
WILLOCHRA BASIN GROUNDWATER STATUS REPORT 2009-10 SUMMARY 2009-10 The Willochra Basin is situated in the southern Flinders Ranges in the Mid-North of South Australia, approximately 50 km east of Port Augusta
More informationENCE 4610 Foundation Analysis and Design
This image cannot currently be displayed. ENCE 4610 Foundation Analysis and Design Shallow Foundations Total and Differential Settlement Schmertmann s Method This image cannot currently be displayed. Strength
More informationWEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION PRACTICE TEST. Which graph best shows the relative stream velocities across the stream from A to B?
NAME DATE WEATHERING, EROSION, AND DEPOSITION PRACTICE TEST 1. The diagram below shows a meandering stream. Measurements of stream velocity were taken along straight line AB. Which graph best shows the
More informationReport on Engineering Geological Investigation: Test pit logs in KwaMhlanga for RDP houses development.
Report on Engineering Geological Investigation: Test pit logs in KwaMhlanga for RDP houses development. 2012 Department of Geology GTX 713 Date Excavated: 18 April 2012 Machine: Bell 315SG Operator: Lesley
More informationRelationship between the percentage of clay with liquid limit, plastic limit and plastic index in four different soils texture class
Technical Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences Available online at www.tjeas.com 2013 TJEAS Journal-2013-3-8/697-702 ISSN 2051-0853 2013 TJEAS Relationship between the percentage of clay with liquid
More informationDetermination of Thermal Conductivity of Coarse and Fine Sand Soils
Proceedings World Geothermal Congress Bali, Indonesia, - April Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Coarse and Fine Sand Soils Indra Noer Hamdhan 1 and Barry G. Clarke 2 1 Bandung National of Institute
More informationANNEX D1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR REVIEWING STUDIES IN THE DETAILED RISK ASSESSMENT FOR SAFETY
ANNEX D1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR REVIEWING STUDIES IN THE DETAILED RISK ASSESSMENT FOR SAFETY ANNEX D1: BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR REVIEWING STUDIES IN DRA FOR SAFETY D1-1 ANNEX D1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
More informationTHE GEOPHYSICAL VERY LOW FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC (VLF-EM) METHOD: EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHY AND SURFACE WATER INVESTIGATED WITH SIMULATIONS AND
THE GEOPHYSICAL VERY LOW FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC (VLF-EM) METHOD: EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHY AND SURFACE WATER INVESTIGATED WITH SIMULATIONS AND FIELD MEASUREMENTS A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate
More informationWater & Climate Review
Water & Climate Review 1. The cross section below shows the direction of air flowing over a mountain. Points A and B are at the same elevation on opposite sides of the mountain. 4. The graph below shows
More informationChapter D9. Irrigation scheduling
Chapter D9. Irrigation scheduling PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER To explain how to plan and schedule your irrigation program CHAPTER CONTENTS factors affecting irrigation intervals influence of soil water using
More information7.2.4 Seismic velocity, attenuation and rock properties
7.2.4 Seismic velocity, attenuation and rock properties Rock properties that affect seismic velocity Porosity Lithification Pressure Fluid saturation Velocity in unconsolidated near surface soils (the
More informationCIVL451. Soil Exploration and Characterization
CIVL451 Soil Exploration and Characterization 1 Definition The process of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that will underlie a proposed structure and their physical properties is generally
More informationINTRODUCTION TO SOIL MODULI. Jean-Louis BRIAUD 1
INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MODULI By Jean-Louis BRIAUD 1 The modulus of a soil is one of the most difficult soil parameters to estimate because it depends on so many factors. Therefore when one says for example:
More informationINVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATION SITES IN KARST TERRANE VIA MULTI-ELECTRODE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE FOUNDATION SITES IN KARST TERRANE VIA MULTI-ELECTRODE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY Dennis R. Hiltunen (drh5@psu.edu) 1 and Mary J. S. Roth (rothm@lafayette.edu) 2 1 Associate Professor
More informationc. Borehole Shear Test (BST): BST is performed according to the instructions published by Handy Geotechnical Instruments, Inc.
Design Manual Chapter 6 - Geotechnical 6B - Subsurface Exploration Program 6B-2 Testing A. General Information Several testing methods can be used to measure soil engineering properties. The advantages,
More informationHow To Prepare A Geotechnical Study For A Trunk Sewer Project In Lincoln, Nebraska
APPENDIX B Geotechnical Engineering Report GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING REPORT Preliminary Geotechnical Study Upper Southeast Salt Creek Sanitary Trunk Sewer Lincoln Wastewater System Lincoln, Nebraska PREPARED
More informationGroundwater Training Course SOPAC, April 2005. Electromagnetic (EM) Induction method for Groundwater Investigations
Groundwater Training Course SOPAC, April 2005 Electromagnetic (EM) Induction method for Groundwater Investigations Electromagnetic (EM) Induction Method Basic principle: An AC electric current is applied
More informationRocks & Minerals. 10. Which rock type is most likely to be monomineralic? 1) rock salt 3) basalt 2) rhyolite 4) conglomerate
1. Of the Earth's more than 2,000 identified minerals, only a small number are commonly found in rocks. This fact indicates that most 1) minerals weather before they can be identified 2) minerals have
More informationWELL LOGGING TECHNIQUES WELL LOGGING DEPARTMENT OIL INDIA LIMITED
WELL LOGGING TECHNIQUES WELL LOGGING DEPARTMENT OIL INDIA LIMITED The Hydrocarbon E & P Process In the exploration process, a most probable hydrocarbon bearing rock structure is defined based on seismic
More information2. Electrical resistivity methods
2. Electrical resistivity methods The resistivity method is used in the study of horizontal and vertical discontinuities in the electrical properties of the ground. It utilizes direct currents or low frequency
More informationSubsoil investigation using integrated methods at Lagos, Nigeria
Journal of Geology and Mining Research Vol. 3(7), pp. 169-179, July 2011 Available online http://www.academicjournals.org/jgmr ISSN 2006-9766 2011 Academic Journals Full Length Research Paper Subsoil investigation
More informationEvaluation of Properties of Soil Subgrade Using Dynamic Cone Penetration Index A Case Study
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development e-issn: 2278-067X, p-issn: 2278-800X Volume 4, Issue 4 (October 202), PP. 07-5 Evaluation of Properties of Soil Subgrade Using Dynamic Cone
More informationThe successful integration of 3D seismic into the mining process: Practical examples from Bowen Basin underground coal mines
Geophysics 165 Troy Peters The successful integration of 3D seismic into the mining process: Practical examples from Bowen Basin underground coal mines This paper discusses how mine staff from a number
More informationFlash Flood Science. Chapter 2. What Is in This Chapter? Flash Flood Processes
Chapter 2 Flash Flood Science A flash flood is generally defined as a rapid onset flood of short duration with a relatively high peak discharge (World Meteorological Organization). The American Meteorological
More informationREPORT OF WORK GUIDELINES
REPORT OF WORK GUIDELINES The following guidelines apply to a report of work submitted under section 56(1) of the Mining Act (http://laws.gnb.ca/en/showdoc/cs/m-14.1). 1 (1) A report of work shall be submitted
More informationEmpirical study of the temporal variation of a tropical surface temperature on hourly time integration
Global Advanced Research Journal of Physical and Applied Sciences Vol. 4 (1) pp. 051-056, September, 2015 Available online http://www.garj.org/garjpas/index.htm Copyright 2015 Global Advanced Research
More informationTrench Rescue by Buddy Martinette
Trench Rescue by Buddy Martinette SOIL TYPE AND TESTING It is imperative that rescue personnel understand soil types and testing procedures if the want to be competent at trench rescue operations. Determining
More informationGroundwater exploration WATEX applications with Ground Penetrating Radars. Dr.Saud Amer USGS Dr.Alain Gachet Radar Technologies France
Groundwater exploration WATEX applications with Ground Penetrating Radars Dr.Saud Amer USGS Dr.Alain Gachet Radar Technologies France GPR is a technology that allows rapid and non destructive collection
More informationLABORATORY CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES
Test Procedure for LABORATORY CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES TxDOT Designation: Tex-142-E Effective Date: August 1999 1. SCOPE 1.1 This method is a system for classifying disturbed and
More informationHow To Design A Foundation
The Islamic university - Gaza Faculty of Engineering Civil Engineering Department CHAPTER (2) SITE INVESTIGATION Instructor : Dr. Jehad Hamad Definition The process of determining the layers of natural
More informationGUIDELINE FOR HAND HELD SHEAR VANE TEST
GUIDELINE FOR HAND HELD SHEAR VANE TEST NZ GEOTECHNICAL SOCIETY INC August 2001 CONTENTS Page 1.0 Introduction 2 2.0 Background 2 3.0 Recommended Practice 3 4.0 Undrained Shear Strength 3 5.0 Particular
More informationWhen to Use Immediate Settlement in Settle 3D
When to Use Immediate Settlement in Settle 3D Most engineers agree that settlement is made up of three components: immediate, primary consolidation and secondary consolidation (or creep). Most engineers
More informationGeotechnical Measurements and Explorations Prof. Nihar Ranjan Patra Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
Geotechnical Measurements and Explorations Prof. Nihar Ranjan Patra Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur Lecture No. # 13 (Refer Slide Time: 00:18) So last class, it was
More informationSPECIFICATIONS FOR PRECAST MODULAR BLOCK RETAINING WALL SYSTEM (revised 11/5/13)
Page 1 of 7 STONE STRONG SYSTEMS SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRECAST MODULAR BLOCK RETAINING WALL SYSTEM (revised ) PART 1: GENERAL 1.01 Description A. Work includes furnishing and installing precast modular blocks
More informationWorld Tower. Company, Inc. Classification Overview. Categories: Structure Classification Exposure Categories Topographic Effects Geological
Manufacturing Custom Fabricated Structures since 1979 Professional In-House Design Staff Tower Delivery Service World Tower Company, Inc. Classification Overview Categories: Structure Classification Exposure
More information1. Base your answer to the following question on on the photographs and news article below. Old Man s Loss Felt in New Hampshire
UNIT 3 EXAM ROCKS AND MINERALS NAME: BLOCK: DATE: 1. Base your answer to the following question on on the photographs and news article below. Old Man s Loss Felt in New Hampshire FRANCONIA, N.H. Crowds
More informationG.N. Egwuonwu, Ph.D. Department of Science Technology, Nigeria Institute of Leather and Science Technology, Zaria, Nigeria.
Application of Geophysical Imaging in Investigation of Structural Failure of Buildings: Case Study of Three Building Sites in Zaria Area, Northwestern Nigeria. G.N. Egwuonwu, Ph.D. Department of Science
More informationDesign, Testing and Automated Monitoring of ACIP Piles in Residual Soils
Design, Testing and Automated Monitoring of ACIP Piles in Residual Soils Stephen W. Lacz 1, M. ASCE, P.E. and Richard C. Wells 2, F. ASCE, P.E. 1 Senior Professional, Trigon Kleinfelder, Inc., 313 Gallimore
More informationOhio Department of Transportation Division of Production Management Office of Geotechnical Engineering. Geotechnical Bulletin PLAN SUBGRADES
Ohio Department of Transportation Division of Production Management Office of Geotechnical Engineering Geotechnical Bulletin GB 1 PLAN SUBGRADES Geotechnical Bulletin GB1 was jointly developed by the Offices
More informationProceedings 2005 Rapid Excavation & Tunneling Conference, Seattle
Proceedings 2005 Rapid Excavation & Tunneling Conference, Seattle EPB-TBM Face Support Control in the Metro do Porto Project, Portugal S. Babendererde, Babendererde Engineers LLC, Kent, WA; E. Hoek, Vancouver,
More informationBasic Soil Erosion and Types
Basic Soil Erosion and Types 2015 Wisconsin Lakes Convention Stacy Dehne DATCP Engineer Types of Soil Erosion Rain drop or splash erosion: Erosion preceded by the destruction of the crumb structure due
More informationMagnetic survey at Nesodden survey and interpretation report
Client Date Nordic Mining 25/10 2012 Project GeoVista ID Magnetic survey, Nesodden GVR12035 Author Client ID Hans Thunehed Magnetic survey at Nesodden survey and interpretation report October 2012 GeoVista
More information(1) Discuss the determination of the need for public visitation. Visitor center density within 100 miles.
Chapter 4 Specifications Designs 3. Visitors Centers 3. Visitors Centers. The Introduction (Chapter 1) for these design data collection guidelines contains additional information concerning: preparing
More informationQuestions & Answers Proposed for Exam #3
Questions & Answers Proposed for Exam #3 GE50 Introduction to Physical Geology (Geology for Engineers) Missouri University of Science and Technology Fall Semester 2007, Leslie Gertsch (GertschL@mst.edu)
More informationDevelopment of Tunnel Electrical Resistivity Prospecting System and its Applicaton
Development of Tunnel Electrical Resistivity Prospecting System and its Applicaton HEE-HWAN RYU 1, GYE-CHUN CHO 2, SUNG-DON YANG 3 and HYUN-KANG SHIN 4 1 Professor, Korea Advanced Institute of Science
More informationINTERPRETATION ADDENDUM CANADIAN MINING COMPANY INC. SUITE 2300-1066 WEST HASTINGS STREET VANCOUVER, BC V6E 3X2 3D INDUCED POLARIZATION
INTERPRETATION ADDENDUM FOR CANADIAN MINING COMPANY INC. SUITE 2300-1066 WEST HASTINGS STREET VANCOUVER, BC V6E 3X2 3D INDUCED POLARIZATION ON THE SAN BERNARDO PROJECT EL GOCHICO GRID Approximate Location:
More informationAn assessment of groundwater resources in basement complex terrain Ofgwarinpa-Kafe area of Abuja Metropolis, Central Nigeria
Available online at www.pelagiaresearchlibrary.com Advances in Applied Science Research, 2012, 3 (1):393-398 ISSN: 0976-8610 CODEN (USA): AASRFC An assessment of groundwater resources in basement complex
More informationA comparative analysis of various seismic refraction interpretation techniques over granitic bedrock
P-331 Summary A comparative analysis of various seismic refraction interpretation techniques over granitic bedrock Ankur Mundhra* 1, Om Prakash Pathak 1, Satyawrat Pamnani 1, T Sheshunarayana 2 A refraction
More informationEFFECT OF GEOGRID REINFORCEMENT ON LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF A COARSE SAND BED
International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 7, Issue 3, May June 2016, pp. 01 06, Article ID: IJCIET_07_03_001 Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?jtype=ijciet&vtype=7&itype=3
More informationTests and Analyses on Shear Strength Increment of Soft Soil under Embankment Fill
Tests and Analyses on Shear Strength Increment of Soft Soil under Embankment Fill Guanbao Ye Professor Key Laboratory of Geotechnical and Underground Engineering,Tongji University, Ministry of Education,
More informationDevelopment of EM simulator for sea bed logging applications using MATLAB
Indian Journal of Geo-Marine Sciences Vol. 40 (2), April 2011, pp. 267-274 Development of EM simulator for sea bed logging applications using MATLAB Hanita Daud 1*, Noorhana Yahya 2, & Vijanth Asirvadam
More informationImprovement in physical properties for ground treated with rapid impact compaction
International Journal of the Physical Sciences Vol. 6(22), pp. 5133-5140, 2 October 2011 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/ijps ISSN 1992-1950 2011 Academic Journals Full Length Research
More informationGUIDELINES FOR GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE STRUCTURES. Materials Engineering Report No. 2009-8M (Supersedes Report No.
GUIDELINES FOR GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE STRUCTURES Materials Engineering Report No. 2009-8M (Supersedes Report No. 21) F CHOWDHURY GEOMECHANICS AND STRUCTURAL MATERIALS ENGINEER S REHMAN GEOTECHNICAL
More informationSUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION USING GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION USING GROUND PENETRATING RADAR Steve Cardimona Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, MO ABSTRACT The ground penetrating radar geophysical method
More informationLife after 30! Innovative investigation and repair of the Overvaal railway tunnel. r a i l w a y s a n d h a r b o u r s PROJECT TEAM
Text Hannes Gräbe Spoornet (Technology Management) hannesg@spoornet.co.za r a i l w a y s a n d h a r b o u r s Life after 30! Innovative investigation and repair of the Overvaal railway tunnel 1 PROJECT
More informationTHE ECOSYSTEM - Biomes
Biomes The Ecosystem - Biomes Side 2 THE ECOSYSTEM - Biomes By the end of this topic you should be able to:- SYLLABUS STATEMENT ASSESSMENT STATEMENT CHECK NOTES 2.4 BIOMES 2.4.1 Define the term biome.
More informationTesting and appraisal of Lucobit polymer effect as an additive on asphalt mixture performance
Abstract Testing and appraisal of polymer effect as an additive on asphalt mixture performance Hamid Sabbagh mollahosseini*,golazin Yadollahi**, Ershad Amoosoltani*** *, ***Executive of Engineering and
More informationGEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAS. A handy reference for use in geotechnical analysis and design
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAS A handy reference for use in geotechnical analysis and design TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1. SOIL CLASSIFICATION...3 1.1 USCS: Unified Soil Classification System...3 1.1.1
More informationThe Effects of Trees On Buildings And Their Characteristics - Part 2
TECHNICAL NOTE NO. 3 TREES AND THEIR EFFECTS PART 2 Part 1 discussed tree and soil characteristics. This Part 2 will provide examples of the effects of trees on buildings with some guidance on defects
More informationSpecification Guidelines: Allan Block Modular Retaining Wall Systems
Specification Guidelines: Allan Block Modular Retaining Wall Systems The following specifications provide Allan Block Corporation's typical requirements and recommendations. At the engineer of record's
More informationGeotechnical Characteristics of Two Different Soils and their Mixture and Relationships between Parameters
Geotechnical Characteristics of Two Different Soils and their Mixture and Relationships between Parameters Arpan Laskar Post Graduate Student Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology
More informationSoil behaviour type from the CPT: an update
Soil behaviour type from the CPT: an update P.K. Robertson Gregg Drilling & Testing Inc., Signal Hill, California, USA ABSTRACT: An initial application of CPT results is to evaluate soil type and soil
More informationA LABORATORY STUDY ON EFFECT OF TEST CONDITIONS ON SUBGRADE STRENGTH
A LABORATORY STUDY ON EFFECT OF TEST CONDITIONS ON SUBGRADE STRENGTH A REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Bachelor of Technology In Civil Engineering By: Rajesh
More informationNOTES on the CONE PENETROMETER TEST
GE 441 Advanced Engineering Geology & Geotechnics Spring 2004 Introduction NOTES on the CONE PENETROMETER TEST The standardized cone-penetrometer test (CPT) involves pushing a 1.41-inch diameter 55 o to
More informationIntroduction to Petroleum Geology and Geophysics
GEO4210 Introduction to Petroleum Geology and Geophysics Geophysical Methods in Hydrocarbon Exploration About this part of the course Purpose: to give an overview of the basic geophysical methods used
More informationproduct manual HS-4210 HS-4210_MAN_09.08 Digital Static Cone Penetrometer
HS-4210_MAN_09.08 product manual HS-4210 Digital Static Cone Penetrometer Introduction This Manual covers the measurement of bearing capacity using the Humboldt Digital Static Cone Penetrometer (DSCP).
More informationCW 3110 SUB-GRADE, SUB-BASE AND BASE COURSE CONSTRUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS
December 2014 CW 3110 SUB-GRADE, SUB-BASE AND BASE COURSE CONSTRUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. DESCRIPTION... 1 1.1 General... 1 1.2 Definitions... 1 1.3 Referenced Standard Construction Specifications...
More informationAssessment of Soil Resistivity on Grounding of Electrical Systems: A Case Study of North-East Zone, Nigeria
Assessment of Soil Resistivity on Grounding of Electrical Systems: A Case Study of North-East Zone, Nigeria Abstract Gabriel A. Adegboyega and Kehinde O. Odeyemi Department of Electrical and Electronic
More informationINSITU TESTS! Shear Vanes! Shear Vanes! Shear Vane Test! Sensitive Soils! Insitu testing is used for two reasons:!
In-situ Testing! Insitu Testing! Insitu testing is used for two reasons:! To allow the determination of shear strength or penetration resistance or permeability of soils that would be difficult or impossible
More informationTHE OBJECTIVES OF ROUTINE ROAD CUTS AND FILLS
Chapter 11 Slope Stabiliza bilization and Stability of Cuts and Fills THE OBJECTIVES OF ROUTINE ROAD CUTS AND FILLS are 1) to create space for the road template and driving surface; 2) to balance material
More informationScheduling Maintenance for Infiltration Basins and Trenches
Visual Inspection for Infiltration Practices Visual inspection is a rapid assessment procedure for qualitatively evaluating the functionality of a stormwater best management practice (BMP). Visual inspections
More informationEARTHWORKS COMPLETION REPORT ELLEN STIRLING PARADE, ELLENBROOK. Ellenbrook, W.A. Georgiou Group Pty Ltd
EARTHWORKS COMPLETION REPORT ELLEN STIRLING PARADE, ELLENBROOK Ellenbrook, W.A. Georgiou Group Pty Ltd GEOTPERT08050AZ-AH 27 March 2013 EARTHWORKS COMPLETION REPORT ELLEN STIRLING PARADE, ELLENBROOK Ellenbrook,
More informationMeasurement of Soil Parameters by Using Penetrometer Needle Apparatus
Vol.3, Issue.1, Jan-Feb. 2013 pp-284-290 ISSN: 2249-6645 Measurement of Soil Parameters by Using Penetrometer Needle Apparatus Mahmoud M. Abu zeid, 1 Amr M. Radwan, 2 Emad A. Osman, 3 Ahmed M.Abu-bakr,
More informationSERVICES 2015 ISO 18001
SERVICES 2015 A family business with a solid foundation of experience, we handle all aspects of site investigation.... Phase 1 Environmental Studies Phase 2 Intrusive Investigations Phase 3 Remediation
More informationEXPLAINING GROUNDWATER AND WATER WELLS
EXPLAINING GROUNDWATER AND WATER WELLS This document aims to provide a non-technical description of groundwater: how it occurs, how it moves underground, and the basic principles behind constructing and
More informationA study on the Effect of Distorted Sampler Shoe on Standard Penetration Test Result in Cohesionless soil
ISSN: 319-53 (An ISO 39: 00 Certified Organization) A study on the Effect of Distorted Sampler Shoe on Standard Penetration Test Result in Cohesionless soil Utpal Kumar Das Associate Professor, Department
More informationSHAFT CONSTRUCTION IN TORONTO USING SLURRY WALLS
SHAFT CONSTRUCTION IN TORONTO USING SLURRY WALLS Vince Luongo Petrifond Foundation Co., Ltd. PROJECT DESCRIPTION The York Durham Sanitary System (YDSS) Interceptor in the Town of Richmond Hill located
More information720 Contour Grading. General. References. Resources. Definitions
720 Contour Grading General Contour grading directs water to a desired point, prevents erosion, provides noise deflection, provides visual fit of the facility into the landscape, and protects desirable
More informationRapid Changes in Earth s Surface
TEKS investigate rapid changes in Earth s surface such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and landslides Rapid Changes in Earth s Surface Constant Changes Earth s surface is constantly changing. Wind,
More informationCONCRETE SEGMENTAL RETAINING WALL SYSTEM
CONCRETE SEGMENTAL RETAINING WALL SYSTEM PART 1: GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS 1.01 Work Included A. Work shall consist of furnishing and constructing a Rockwood Classic 8 with PCS unit segmental retaining wall
More informationModule 7 (Lecture 24 to 28) RETAINING WALLS
Module 7 (Lecture 24 to 28) RETAINING WALLS Topics 24.1 INTRODUCTION 24.2 GRAVITY AND CANTILEVER WALLS 24.3 PROPORTIONING RETAINING WALLS 24.4 APPLICATION OF LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE THEORIES TO DESIGN 24.5
More informationEFFECT OF DIESEL CONTAMINATION ON GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF CLAY NEAR BPCL
International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 7, Issue 2, March-April 216, pp. 152 158, Article ID: IJCIET_7_2_12 Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?jtype=ijciet&vtype=7&itype=2
More informationGeotechnical Investigation Reports and Foundation Recommendations - Scope for Improvement - Examples
Geotechnical Investigation Reports and Foundation Recommendations - Scope for Improvement - Examples Prof. V.S.Raju (Formerly: Director, IIT Delhi & Professor and Dean, IIT Madras) Email: rajuvs_b@yahoo.com
More informationProperty Care White Papers. Site Drainage: Monitor and Maintain
Monitor and Maintain Site Drainage Good site drainage is an important part of keeping water issues from affecting the building. The upkeep of existing systems should be an important part of any maintenance
More informationPermafrost monitoring at Mölltaler Glacier and Magnetköpfl
Permafrost monitoring at Mölltaler Glacier and Magnetköpfl DAVID OTTOWITZ 1, BIRGIT JOCHUM 1, ROBERT SUPPER 1, ALEXANDER RÖMER 1, STEFAN PFEILER 1 and MARKUS KEUSCHNIG 2, 3 1 Department of Geophysics,
More informationPILE FOUNDATIONS FM 5-134
C H A P T E R 6 PILE FOUNDATIONS Section I. GROUP BEHAVIOR 6-1. Group action. Piles are most effective when combined in groups or clusters. Combining piles in a group complicates analysis since the characteristics
More information