Transistors. Integrated electric circuit. Resistors. Capacitors. The History of Computing: The Integrated Circuit

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1 Our world is full of Integrated Circuits The History of Computing: The Integrated Circuit We can find them everywhere Ira Heifets Alexander Eidenzon Integrated electric circuit Transistors Just a very advanced electric circuit. Made from different electrical components: transistors, resistors, capacitors and diodes, connected to each other in different ways. Operates like a switch Turns electricity on or off Amplifies current Used in computers to store information, or to amplify signals Resistors Capacitors Limits the flow of electricity and allows to control the current Used, among other things, to control the volume in television sets or radios Collects electricity and releases it all in one quick burst Ex: in cameras where a tiny battery can provide enough energy to fire the flashbulb 1

2 Diodes Vacuum Tubes Stops electricity under some conditions and allows it to pass under another Ex.: broken light bean in photocells triggers the diode to stop electricity from flowing Controls movement of electrons in evacuated space to amplify, switch or modify signal Critical devices in electronics technology: radio broadcasting, television, telephone, analog and digital computers Still used as display device in television sets and computer monitors Vacuum Tubes in Complex Circuits Transistor vs. Vacuum Tube Engineers quickly became aware of vacuum tube limitations in complex circuits. First digital computer ENIAC weighed over thirty tons, consumed 200 kilowatts of electrical power. It had around 18,000 constantly burning out vacuum tubes very unreliable. VT Like a light bulb Generates a lot of heat and burns out Slow, big and bulky Transistor Invented in 1947, considered a revolution. Small, fast, reliable, effective Quickly replaced vacuum tube Tyranny of Numbers On the way to IC Advanced circuits contained many components and connections Virtually impossible to build This problem was known as the tyranny of numbers Had to construct circuits by hand, soldering components in place, connecting with metal wires Problems: Size & Speed Large computer components and long connecting wires Signals traveled too slow through the circuit, making the computer ineffective 2

3 The birth of the IC Jack Kilby ( ) Precursor idea to IC: creating small ceramic squares (wafers), each containing single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated into a two- or three- dimensional compact grid. Summer 1958, Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments solved miniaturization problem. Made all components and the chip out of the same block of semiconductor material. Circuits could be made smaller, manufacturing process could be automated. Jack Kilby The first integrated circuits were manufactured independently by two scientists Robert Noyce Kilby received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for the invention of the IC Robert Noyce ( ) Mayor of Silicon Valley Robert Noyce, general manager of Fairchild Semiconductor, had his own idea for IC. Solved Kilby s circuit problems, interconnecting all components on the chip. Added metal as final layer, then removed some of it to form wires for components connecting. Robert Noyce also was one of the cofounders of Intel in Intel is one of the largest manufacturers of integrated circuits in the world. Robert Noyce nickname was Mayor of Silicon Valley 1961 IC: some details Layout and Fabrication Depletion region in reverse voltage as electrical isolation Integrated Circuit Layout Colored rectangles for different layers R.Noyce: The integrated circuit accomplishes the separation and interconnection of transistors and other circuit elements electrically rather than physically. The separation is accomplished by introducing PN diodes which allow current to flow in only one direction. Photolithography used in microfabrication to selectively remove parts of bulk of substrate Uses light to transfer geometric pattern from photomask to light-sensitive photoresist on the substrate 3

4 Small-Scale Integration Apollo Guidance Computer First IC contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration" (SSI), used circuits containing transistors numbering in tens. SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects. Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for its inertiallyguided flight computers Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) was first modern embedded system Used in real-time by astronaut pilots to collect and provide flight information and control navigational functions of spacecraft Developed by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory AGC Description AGC in Apollo Block I version used 4,100 ICs and Block II used 5,600 IC s. The computer's RAM was magnetic core memory (4K) and ROM was implemented as core rope memory (32K). Both had cycle times of 12 microseconds. Core frequency of Hz to 51.2 khz (17 stages) Each flight to the moon had two AGCs, one each in the command module (the spacecraft itself) and the lunar module (the lander portion). AGC in Command Module was at the centre of spacecraft's guidance & navigation system (G&C). AGC in Lunar Module ran its Primary Guidance, Navigation and Control System, called PGNCS (pronounced "pings") The Mainframe Era Punch Cards Large mechanical assembly that held the central processor and input/output complex. In the 1960s, most mainframes had no interactive interface. Accepted decks of punch cards, operated in batch mode to support back office functions. Teletype devices were also common, especially for system operators. Paper containing digital info represented by presence / absence of holes in predefined positions. First used around 1725 in textile industry. Early computers used punched cards for input of programs and data. In 1896 Tabulating Machine Company was founded to develop punch cards data processing (later merged into IBM). 1960s 4

5 Batch Mode Processing Time Sharing & Teletype Devices Computer gives full attention to your program. Had to prepare program off-line on a key punch machine. IBM Key Punch machine: - operates as a typewriter - produces punched cards rather than printed sheet of paper Time sharing: - Way to interact with mainframe in round-robin fashion. - Perhaps 100 users were logged on, each typing on a teletype. - Firstly implemented in 1957, on IBM 704, later on IBM Teletype: - motorized typewriter - transmitted keystrokes to mainframe - printed computer's response on roll of paper. IBM and the Seven Dwarfs International Business Machines Corporation IBM Burroughs UNIVAC NCR Control Data Honeywell General Electric RCA IBM's dominance grew out of their 700/7000 series and 360 series mainframes. Multinational computer technology corporation, headquartered in Armonk, New York, USA. Largest of 8 major computer companies at the 1960s. In the 1950s, became chief contractor for developing computers for US Air Force's. Gained access to crucial research at MIT, working on first real-time digital computer. IBM 700/7000 series IBM 704 Series of LS computer systems made in the 1950s and early 1960s. Included several incompatible processor architectures. The 700's used vacuum tube logic and were replaced by the transistorized 7000s. The 7000s were replaced by System/360, announced in IBM 7090's at NASA's Project Mercury, First mass-produced computer with floating point arithmetic hardware, introduced in IBM 704 Manual of operation: The type 704 Electronic Data- Processing Machine is a large-scale, high-speed electronic calculator controlled by an internally stored program of the single address type. FORTRAN and LISP were first developed for the

6 IBM Mainframe family tree IBM System/360 Mainframe computer system family announced in First computers family separating architecture from implementation Allowed release of compatible designs at different price points. One of the most successful computers ever, influencing computer design for many years General Electric GE-200 Had extensive line of general purpose and special purpose computers. Among them were: - General purpose computers: GE 200, GE 400, GE 600 series - Real time process control computers: GE 4010, GE 4020, GE Message switching computer: Datanet 30 Family of medium large computers Optional features were: - Floating Point - Decimal arithmetic - Real-Time clock - Move command Technology was solid-state (diodes and transistors). 8K words system contained 1,000 circuit boards, 10,000 transistors, 20,000 diodes and 186,000 magnetic cores. 1960s Burroughs Control Data Corporation The Burroughs Corporation developed highly innovative architectures, based on the design philosophy of "language directed design". Large systems machines starting with the B5000 in 1961 were stack machines designed to be programmed in an extended Algol 60. Included virtual memory and support for multiprogramming and multiprocessing. The B2000 or "medium systems" computers aimed primarily at the business world, architected to execute COBOL efficiently. For most of the 1960s, built the fastest computers in the world In 1964, CDC 6600, outperformed everything by roughly ten times. Considered to be the first successful supercomputer CPU with multiple asynchronous functional units, used 10 logical, external I/O processors to offload common tasks. CPU only processed data, other controllers punched cards, ran disks etc. 6

7 UNIVAC Digital Equipment Corporation In 1960 started 1100 series of compatible 36-bit transistorized computer systems Supported multiprogramming: sharing CPU time among several batch runs. PDP-8 was introduced in Small enough to fit on a cart. Simple to be used for many roles, sold in huge numbers to new market niches, labs, railways etc. First computer to be purchased by a handful of end users. Regarded as the first minicomputer. Bibliography uit/history/ ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/5/17614/ pdf inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa htm eader.htm ml 7