Introduction...v. SECTION 1: Core Units...1. Core Unit 1: Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment...2

Transcription

1 CONTENTS Introduction...v Exam breakdown...v The Geography exam booklet...vi What are SRPs?...vii Structure of the exam paper and questions...vii Preparing for the exam...vii What to do in the exam...vii SECTION 1: Core Units...1 Core Unit 1: Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment The Tectonic Cycle The Rock Cycle Weathering Processes Landforms Influenced by the Tectonic Cycle Landforms Influenced by Rock Type Landforms Influenced by Surface Processes People s Interaction with Surface Processes The Process of Isostasy, Adjustment to Base Level and Landforms Ordnance Survey Maps, Photographs, Graphs and Charts...67 Core Unit 2: Regional Geography Types and Definitions of Regions The Dynamics of Regions: Contrasting Regions in Ireland and Europe The Dynamics of Regions: A Subcontinental Region (India or the American Southwest) The Complexity of Regions The Complexity of Regions

2 iv SECTION 2: Electives (Choose either Elective 1 or Elective 2) Elective 1: Patterns and Processes in Economic Activities Patterns in Economic Development Changing Patterns in Economic Development Globalisation Ireland and the European Union The Environmental Impact of Economic Development Or Elective 2: Patterns and Processes in the Human Environment Population Overpopulation Migration Settlement Land Use Urban Problems SECTION 3: Options (HIGHER LEVEL STUDENTS ONLY) Choose ONE option only Option 1: Global Interdependence Models of Development The Impact of the Global Economy Linking Economic Growth with Human Development Sustainable Development The Way Forward Option 2: Geoecology The Development of Soils Factors that Affect Soil Characteristics Biomes How People s Activities have Altered Biomes Option 3: Culture and Identity Populations: Physical and Cultural Factors Language and Religion as Cultural Indicators Nationality and Nation States...296

3 Core Unit 1: Patterns and Processes in the Physical Environment 1 The Tectonic Cycle You need to know about: the structure of the earth plate tectonics (in detail). The earth is made up of layers: the crust, the mantle and the core. The crust is broken into plates. These plates move. They separate, collide and slide past each other. The plates are carried about by convection currents in the mantle. The crust The crust is composed of the continents, the ocean floors and the rigid upper mantle. This is called the lithosphere and all its rocks are solid. The continents are formed mostly of light, granite-like rocks. They are 45 km thick on average, and up to 70 km thick under the mountain ranges. The ocean floors are formed mostly of basalt, which is heavy. They have an average thickness of 8 km, but may be as thin as 3 km in places. The mantle The upper mantle is solid rock. The middle and lower mantle consists of plastic-like rock that moves to form convection currents. The plates of the The lithosphere is formed of lithosphere move about on these slow-moving the crust and upper mantle. currents. The rock in the lower mantle is in a semi-liquid state because its temperature is very high. The core The core is made up of nickel and iron. It is the hottest part of the earth: temperatures are greater than 4000 C.

4 PATTERNS AND PROCESSES IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 3 Crust earth s outer skin consists of solid rock about km thick under the continents only about 3 20 km thick under the oceans Outer Core liquid, or molten, state consists mainly of iron Inner core extremely hot solid consists of iron and nickel temperatures > 4000 C A section through the earth Mantle consists of rock in a molten or semimolten state this moves in convection currents that carry the plates core mantle The lithosphere upper mantle ocean crust lithosphere continental crust Forces within the earth are called endogenic forces. Examples: convection currents, subducting plates. They create, change and destroy landforms on and within the earth s surface. WHAT WAS PANGAEA? All continents were joined together to form a single continent called Pangaea. It was surrounded by a single ocean called Panthalassa. Proofs of seafloor spreading Mid-ocean ridges form at the boundaries of construction. New rock forms at mid-ocean ridges. The oldest rock is closest to the continents. Proofs of continental drift Make sure you know these basic facts about plate tectonics theory. Matching rocks found on continents that are thousands of miles apart. Matching fossils found in precise locations where the continents were once joined together. Edges of continents along the continental shelves fit together like a jigsaw.

5 PATTERNS AND PROCESSES IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 9 The best way to revise volcanoes is by using past questions and sample answers. SAMPLE EXAM QUESTION AND ANSWER Question: Discuss how plate tectonics has increased our understanding of the global distribution of volcanoes. (2008; 30 marks) Note: draw a simple diagram or diagrams with a few label sentences/srps. Marking scheme: Two global examples 2 marks each. Plate tectonics examined 13 2 marks each. Answer: Most volcanoes form at boundaries of destruction. island arc deep ocean trench ocean plates sink into mantle Wadati-Benioff melting plate Ocean ocean boundary: Western Pacific You should: write at least 15 SRPs (2 marks each) name two plates that collide to cause subduction name a volcano. ocean plates sink into mantle the Andes Wadati-Benioff sinking plate melting plate Ocean continent boundary: Eastern Pacific

6 10 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS The earth s crust is divided into plates and these plates move due to seafloor spreading and continental drift. Convection currents carry the plates of the earth s crust in a piggy-back motion. The plates collide at boundaries of collision or destruction. Most volcanoes form at two types of destructive plate boundaries: (a) where an ocean plate collides with a continental plate; and (b) where two ocean plates collide. As plates approach each other, the intervening ocean floor plate is subducted into the mantle. As it descends, it melts at a depth of about 100 km. The continental plate scrapes layers of sediment from the descending ocean floor and they are forced upwards, buckled and compressed into fold mountains. The melting descending plate creates magma that rises through the folded rock above. Small amounts of this magma rise and collect into huge masses of magma called batholiths. These batholiths are the source of magma, which creates volcanoes at the surface in fold mountains such as Cotopaxi in the Andes. Most volcanoes are located around the western edge of the Pacific Ocean where ocean plates collide. They form part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The sinking plates melt forming magma. Eventually, the compressed gases and liquid magma are blasted through the ocean floor and build up volcanic cones, such as those in the Philippines and Japan. Some volcanoes occur at hot spots. These are areas where large batholiths are close to the surface at locations away from plate boundaries. Examples: Yellowstone National Park, USA. A question on hot spots may appear in shortanswer questions. Black smokers are chimney-like openings at mid-ocean ridges. Very hot water containing dissolved minerals gushes from these openings. Hot spots are localised areas of volcanic activity that may be far from plate boundaries. Effects of volcanoes Positive Lava soils are rich in iron, which is good for coffee production. Geothermal energy can be generated from hot rock and geysers.

7 14 LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS Learn some facts about two recent earthquakes in contrasting regions, e.g. Sumatra/Indonesia, Kobe in Japan or Kashmir in Pakistan. Case study: Indonesian/Sumatra Andaman earthquake (2004) Cause Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes on the ocean floor The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea megathrust earthquake that occurred on 26 December 2004 in the Indian Ocean off the western coast of northern Sumatra. It happened at a subduction zone where the Indian plate sinks under the Eurasian plate. An estimated 1600 km of the jammed plates/faultline slipped in two stages, each stage causing a continuous slip along the faultline and massive earthquakes at a depth of 30 km beneath the sea bed. The largest of these earthquakes or aftershocks measured 9.1 on the Richter scale the second largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph. The earthquake was the biggest in the Indian Ocean for 700 years. The Indian plate, which is a heavy ocean plate of basalt, dips under the lighter continental Eurasian plate and jams as it sinks into the mantle. Stress builds up in the jammed plates until the plate slips or the rock breaks. In this case the rock was strong and great stress had built up in the rocks before they snapped.

8 PATTERNS AND PROCESSES IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 15 The snapping or release of the stressed plates raised the seafloor several metres, so displacing huge volumes of water and causing massive tsunamis up to 30 metres high in places. Consequences The shift of the crust and the massive release of energy slightly altered the Earth s rotation. This could have some minor effects on climate. Giant waves, called tsunamis, were created. These devastated the Indian Ocean coastal areas, especially the Indonesian and Thailand coasts. More than 230,000 people were killed and over 1 million displaced. Coastal villages and towns and some regions, such as Aceh in Sumatra, were completely devastated by the tsunamis. Read more at: How to reduce the effects of earthquakes Enforce strict building regulations in earthquake-prone regions. Install earthquake-proof technology in new tall buildings. Practise emergency earthquake drills and regional emergency plan procedures. Develop tsunami warning stations for all countries throughout the Pacific and Indian Ocean regions. Predicting volcanic eruptions and earthquakes Scientific instruments (e.g. strain meters, lasers) are placed in susceptible regions. Seismic gaps are places that have not had an earthquake for a long time but are bordered by areas of recent earthquake activity. Seismic gaps are the most likely spots for future earthquakes. A dating pattern of past earthquakes and volcanoes can help to predict the likelihood of new ones. Observations of animal behaviour animals are sensitive to tremors. Plate boundaries: Questions 2B, SEC Sample Exam Paper 2006; 2B, 2007; 2B, Volcanoes: Questions 2C, SEC Sample Exam Paper 2006; 3C, 2006; 2B, 2008.